The role of coaches in performance in sport

1. The role of coaches in performance in sport IB Learning Objective: To what extent does the role of coaches affect individual or team behavior in sport?

2. Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008) Aim: Procedure: - Semi-structured interviews with teenage swimmers who dropped out of the sport - Compared the content with that of swimmers who were still continuing with the sport Findings & Conclusion: - Both groups of swimmers used a range of coaching styles and behaviours: Some had more than one coach, in addition to having a rciprocal, democratic relationsip with their coach- these two features were reported only by the group that continued with their sport. - The reciprocal relationship involved the coach sharing the swimmer's experience of considering dropping out and decin not to - Interview research has indicated that parents and peers also play an important role in in motivating a person to participate and perform in a sport - This shows how the social bonds made by a person also influence their motivation for a certain sport

3. Keegan et al. (2009) • Aim: To investigate the coaching behavior and its effect on success • Procedure: • Participants-- 40 children (age 7-11) • Interview Study • Findings : • Positive aspects • equal treatment • one-to-one coaching with instruction • evaluation and positive feedback • competitive tasks at the end of training • varied and fun activities Fault-finding in evaluation - The children found it confusing and demotivating (maybe the children did not understand) e.g) The use of summative labelling comments such as, 'You're not good at that.' More effective were behaviour-specific comments with instruction about how to improve. Conclusion : The study suggests that there are key areas modern coaching should focus on-- providing intrinsic feedback and constructing player-centered training schedules that are less prescriptive and more varied.

4. Chase et al. (1997) Aim To investigate coaches' efficacy beliefs for their teams in relation to team performance. Procedures 4 female coaches of division III women's basketball teams • Questionnaires about confidence in their teams' abilities to perform specific basketball skills and "playing well" before each game were given for the coaches to answer Basketball skills - e.g. shoot field goals, free throws, and commit turnovers Results and Conclusions Coaches were only able to reliably predict team performance for the skills of free throw shooting and committing few turnovers. Good performance preparation also contributed to high efficacy expectations in their teams. It was found that coaches' efficacy expectations were to a large extent linked to skills. Free skills like free throw shooting and committing few turnovers can make the difference between losing and winning games so coaches may focus on proper execution of these skills and practise them more. The researchers recommend that coaches focus on self-improvement and effort because these factors are controllable and influenced by coaching techniques. How does this relate to the self-fulfilling prophecy? If players are aware of a coach's low efficacy expectation for their team, a self-fulfilling prophecy effect might occur, i.e. these expectations may inadvertently contribute to low player efficacy.

5. Solomon et al. (1996) The investigation of the relationship between actual coach feedback and player perception of feedback What did they find? • Coaches primarily provided mistake-contingent feedback and attended to high expectancy athletes • Feedback perceived as more adequate than did low expectancy athletes. High expectancy athletes receive more feedback.

6. Alfermann et al. (2005) Study 1 Aim: Investigate the relationship between athlete's skill development and perceived coach behavior & Athlete's skill development and perceived motivational climate Sample: 119 competitive swimmers (61 male and 58 female) Procedure: 1) The participants were placed into three skill levels based on their age, year of practice, and level of competition 2) Participants completed the same questionnaires, about coaches' leadership style and ability to establish positive motivational climate, twice every 12 months. Results: Coaches' behavior was rated as positive and encouraging - participants perceived their coaches as providing a "mastery climate" with democratic relationship There was a positive relationship between perceived coach behavior and swimmers' skill development

7. Alfermann et al. (2005) Study 2 Aim: To investigate the the impact of coach behavior and motivation on skill development and the difference between team and individual sports. Procedure: • 212 junior athletes (136 male and 76 female) • Average Age: 15 years old • The participants were to complete two questionnaires in a span of four months. Results: • Opposite patterns for individual and team sports • High perceived social support and less instruction helped skill development of team sport athletes • Less social support and more instruction helped skill development of individual sport athletes (Higher master climate) • Team sports require more group oriented behavior from the coach.