European Transformations

1. European Transformations John Ermer World History AP Miami Beach Senior High

2. The Protestant Reformation Begins: Lutheranism • Roman Catholic Church serves as source of cultural unity in Europe • Power and wealth breeds corruption at expense of spiritual authority • Many priests sell indulgences to gain wealth, many others resent Church policies • Introduction of the printing press to Europe furthers anti-Catholic ideas • 1517: German monk, Martin Luther, issues “95 theses” in Wittenberg • Protests abuses of Church power, ideas printed and spread • Rejects teaching authority of the church, claims Bible is the only authority • Rejects Catholic some “sacraments” and priestly celibacy • Only baptism and communion remain important to Luther’s followers • 1521: Excommunicated by pope, Luther establishes new Church in Wittenberg • “Lutheran” movement gains political support in many German cities • Holy Roman Emperor Charles V outlaws Luther and his teachings • Luther protected by prince of Wittenberg, political rivals of Charles help Luther • Lutheran princes put Catholic churches under government control • Luther and his teachings come under political control—corrupted

3. Martin Luther

4. The Spread of Protestant Christianity • Mid-Sixteenth Century, ½ of Germany = Lutheran • Protestant churches spread to Netherlands and cities in Switzerland • King Henry VIII of England names himself “Supreme Head” of Church of England for largely political purposes, divorce—beliefs, rituals change little • Swiss priest Ulrich Zwingli reforms Zurich’s churches • Abolishes relics and images in churches, replaced with white walls • Form of Catholic Mass replaced by scripture readings, prayers, sermons • Disagreement with Luther over importance of communion prevent unification • Zwingli dies in battle versus Catholic forces from western Switzerland • John Calvin, French lawyer in Geneva, inherits Zwingli’s followers • 1536: Publishes the Institutes of the Christian Religion, outlining Protestant faith • Spreads belief in Predestination, belief God has already chosen the saved • Calvin takes control of Geneva’s gov’t, est. Consistory as religious court • Calvinism spreads to Netherlands, parts of France, Scotland

7. The Anabaptists • Disliked state control of church like Luther and Calvin established • Anabaptists: faith should be by adults who choose a spiritual rebirth, and are baptized • Adult baptism was a new idea, different than those held by Catholics and Protestants • Separation of church and state=important • Ministers elected by people, from the community since all Christians are equal (but not women) • Did not believe in war or holding political office • Catholics & Protestants persecuted Anabaptists

10. The Catholic Reformation • “Catholic Reformation” refers to a series of measures taken by the Catholic Church in reaction to the Protestant Reformation and as an attempt to deepen spiritual and religious commitment of Catholics • 1545-1563: The Council of Trent • Upholds: faith and good works needed for salvation, clerical celibacy, purgatory, sacraments, Eucharist; however, sale of indulgences is forbidden • The Jesuits • Official name, “The Society of Jesus” founded by Ignatius of Loyola • Jesuit priests rigorously educated, swear loyalty to pope and Church • Sent as missionaries to Protestant and non-Christian areas • Served as advisors to Catholic kings and some foreign leaders • Perhaps most influential group in spreading Christianity globally

11. The Council of Trent

12. Effects of Religious Fracturing • In areas where tension between Catholics and Protestants ran high, many developed fear of the supernatural—witches • Women account for 85% of those convicted of witchcraft • The Spanish Armada • Philip II of Spain (Catholic) tries to dethrone Elizabeth I of England (Protestant) • United Provinces of the Netherlands • Philip attempts to stop Calvinism from spreading in “Low Countries” • Northern provinces split, become the Netherlands, southern provinces remain under Spanish control and will become Belgium • The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) • “Last of the Religious Wars” • Holy Roman Emperor wants Bohemia to come back to Catholic Church • Main battle field is Germany, but many European countries participate • Ends with Peace of Westphalia; France emerges more powerful • Holy Roman Emperor loses all power, German princes gain total autonomy

15. Royal Power & The Spanish Inquisition • “New Monarchs” in England, France, & Spain consolidate power • Develop new sources of finance • French and Spanish kings levy new taxes • English kings increase fees for royal services • Henry VIII confiscates church lands and “treasures” • Services formerly provided by church now provided by state • Many Protestant monarchs use new churches to increase power • English, Swedish, Danish, and German leaders use Protestantism to gain wealth • Spanish monarchs gain papal license to punish Jews & Muslims • Spanish Inquisition also used to seek out Protestant heretics • Kings use the inquisition as method of controlling political dissent

16. Absolutism in France • Absolute monarchies derive power from concept of “divine right of kings” (aka “divine right to rule”), believe power comes from God • France is best example of an absolute monarchy • Louis XIII and his minister Cardinal Richelieu create absolutist state • Spied on nobility, destroys castles of noblemen, builds loyal bureaucracy • Crushes French Calvinism and politically independent nobles • King Louis XIV—”The Sun King” (1643-1715) • Builds palace at, and moves his court to, Versailles • Asks aristocracy to move their residences to Versailles (to spy on them) • Economic minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert builds economic infrastructure and abolishes internal tariffs thus improving export trade

19. Legacy of Louis XIV • 1715: Louis XIV dies • France is in debt and surrounded by enemies • On his deathbed he tells great-grandson: • “Soon you will be King of a great kingdom…Try to remain at peace with your neighbors. I loved war too much. Do not follow me in that or in overspending…Lighten your people’s burden as soon as possible, and do what I have had the misfortune not to do myself.”

20. Russian Absolutism • 1500: Ivan IV named Czar (“Caesar”) • Crushes power of boyars (nobles) • Expands empire to the East • 1598-1613: Time of Trouble • Ivan’s dynasty ends, struggle for power • 1613-1917: Romanov Dynasty • Romanovs move to “Europeanize” Russia • Peter The Great returns from West with idea

21. Peter The Great of Russia • Peter reorganizes army with Russian and European officers, peasants serve 25 yrs • 210,000 men in army, starts Russian navy • Looks down on Russian culture, act Western (no beards, no long coats) • Women given more freedom than before • No longer required to wear veils • Wins land from Sweden, establishes a port • Builds city of St. Petersburg on Baltic Coast • St. Pete=Russian capital until 1918

22. Catherine The Great’s Russia • Catherine takes power of Russia (1762-1796), favors Enlightened reforms • Establishes new code of laws, all are equal under the law, but never really enforced • Nobility is key to stability, but her favor of nobles leads to unrest among serfs • Catherine expands Russian territory to the south (Black Sea), and west to Poland

24. English Revolutions • Monarch vs. Parliament for control • Struggle finally decided by future wars • 1603: Queen Elizabeth dies, no heir • James Stuart, her cousin, crowned King James I • James believes kings get their power from God—”Divine Right to Rule” • Parliament doesn’t agree, prefers co-rule • Puritans (Calvinist members of Church of England) want to reform church, and hold many seats in House of Commons

25. England on Verge of War • James I dies, son Charles I crowned king • 1628: Parliament says king cannot make new taxes without their agreement • Charles accepts, then abolishes law b/c it limits his powers as king • Charles makes changes to Church of England, against wishes of Puritans • Many Puritans leave England and settle in America (New England) as “Pilgrims”

27. Civil War & The Commonwealth • 1642: War starts b/w “Cavaliers” (Royals) and “Roundheads” (Parliament) • Roundheads victorious because of Oliver Cromwell’s military genius • Cromwell’s “New Model Army” made up of strict Puritans who fought “for God” • Cromwell purges Parliament of Royals, and abolishes monarchy, declares republic • Executes King Charles I • Cromwell’s “republic”=military dictatorship

28. The Restoration • 1658: Oliver Cromwell dies, Parliament restores the Stuart dynasty to monarchy • But Parliament has more power than before • Restores Church of England as official church • Limits rights of Catholics and Puritans • King Charles II sympathetic to Catholics • Charles suspends law restoring church, Parliament makes him back down and take it back • James II, a Catholic, appoints Catholics to high positions in government, army, schools • Parliament not nervous b/c of his age • When James has a son with his Catholic wife, Parliament starts to worry

29. The Glorious Revolution • Parliament asks Dutch Prince William of Orange, husband of James’ daughter, to invade England • William “invades”, James runs to France • William becomes king of England in bloodless revolution • Accepts Bill of Rights giving Parliament much power to make laws and levy taxes • Allows for rule of law, foundation of constitutional monarchy • Act of Toleration: Puritans can worship, Catholics can’t

30. Dismissing of Parliament With William & Mary

31. New Ideas • Scientists and Mathematicians begin to investigate the world around them • Thinkers of the time believe Math, as the language of the universe, can unlock the door to knowledge • Ptolemaic Universe was a model which put Earth at the center—geocentric • Copernicus argues for a heliocentric universe • Kepler proves Copernicus correct

33. Galileo Galilei • Math teacher, first European to use a telescope to observe the stars and planets • Proves stars are not just “balls of pure light” • Galileo gets in trouble with the Catholic Church, most scientists agree w/ Galileo • Galileo had set out to explain motion in the universe, never finds answer • Another scientist, Newton, does…

34. Galileo

35. Isaac Newton • Newton attends Cambridge University • Professor of Mathematics • Writes Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia), describes three laws of motion: • Universal law of gravitation: all objects in the universe are attracted to one another by gravity • Proves that one mathematically proven law can explain all motion in the universe. • Establishes the idea that the universe works according to a set of laws

36. Sir Isaac Newton

37. Philosophy and Reason • Rene Descartes, takes the new view of the universe, and creates new view of humanity • Develops a philosophy that stays until 20th Cen. • Begins by “forgetting” everything he’s learned, comes up with new ideas from scratch • Accepted only things proved by reason • Separation of mind and matter • Rationalism, based on belief that reason is chief source of knowledge • Francis Bacon: Scientific Method/Inductive Reason

38. The Enlightenment • 18th Century philosophical movement of intellectuals impressed by Scientific Rev • Centered around “reason”, or using Scientific Method to understand all life, to improve life • Isaac Newton and John Locke= inspiration • John Locke argues that humans are born with blank minds, we learn through our senses perceiving the world around us. • Change the surroundings, change the person/society • Attempts to find “natural laws of politics” • Montesquieu attempts to establish a science of politics to encourage liberty and stability • CesareBaccaria argues against capital punishment, and for stronger police force • Voltaire

39. Enlightened Intellectuals

40. Economics • Adam Smith, wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776),considered founder of social sciences together with Physiocrats • Laissez-faire: “to let do” the government should let business do what it wants, and government should only do three things: • Protect its people from invasion (army) • Protect its people from each other (police) • Build/maintain infrastructure (roads, canals) that are too expensive for the private sector • Theory of Progress • Belief that advances in natural science would lead to greater knowledge of human affairs and lead to prosperity, peace, and liberty • Subject society to rational analysis and replace religious values with secular values arrived at by reason rather than revelation

41. Reading and Sharing Ideas • Rich people know how to read, and do • Learn a lot through reading various works • Magazines and newspapers rise • London most famous for these new publications • Salon: great rooms in homes of rich Europeans where they can talk and share ideas, information and news • Intellectuals known as “philosophes” encourage the use of reason

42. Religion and the Enlightenment • Deism • God as watchmaker • Many new ideas attack Christianity • Many Europeans still very Christian • 95% of Catholics go to Easter mass • Many Protestant churches, controlled by the states, lacked the same religious enthusiasm • New Protestant movements arise • John Wesley, creates Methodist Church • Becomes big movement in England, ends slave trade, brings English middle and lower class together into a community of believers