Market-Led Pluralism: Re-Thinking Our Understanding of Racial/Ethnic Spatial Patterning in

1. Market-Led Pluralism: Re-Thinking Our Understanding of Racial/Ethnic Spatial Patterning in US Cities Lawrence A. Brown and Su-Yeul Chung Department of Geography Ohio State University and Western Illinois University Columbus, Ohio 43210-1361; Macomb, Illinois 61455-1390 Third International Population Geographies Conference. June 2006 Liverpool United Kingdom

2. Vast Differences Between US City of Today Compared to Quarter and Half Century Ago Call for Rethinking Frameworks That Provide an Explanation of Clustering/Segregation Along Racial/Ethnic Lines

3. Portrayals of residential patterning in US metros emphasize SEGREGATION Kaplan, Wheeler, and Holloway 2004 text: “African Americans remain extremely segregated several decades after the civil rights movement” “Hispanics are more segregated than Asians “African Americans are highly segregated [but] some improvement” “segregation for Hispanics increased notably during the 1990s” Logan, Stults, and Farley (2004) research paper: “in every year [1980-2000], blacks were the most segregated group; Asians were the least segregated; black-white segregation decline[d]; segregation of Hispanics and Asians remained almost the same; blacks remained more segregated from whites than were Hispanics or Asians”. SUNY-Albany Lewis Mumford Center institutional setting: Present three decades of D-Indices (1980-2000) for US Metro Areas under the heading -- “Exploring the persistent and changing nature of segregation in America's metro areas, large and small” Hence, expectsegregation, high levels of clustering when considering racial/ethnic residential patterning in US city

4. How Then Do We Explain --

8. But we’re not alone -- NYTon America’s Newest Suburbs -- “Instead of all-white enclaves of the 1960's + 70's, new exurbs are a mélange of colors and cultures.” Columbus Dispatch on political strategy -- “inner tier suburbs … extension of cities they surround [with] increasing concentrations of ethnic minorities, generally liberal attitudes on social questions … greater presence of singles in high-rise and condominium developments … receptivity to arguments for environmental protection and planned growth Terms have been coined -- ethnoburb, invisiburb, saffron suburb Questioning relevancy “of the U.S. black-white model, which reflects legacy of slavery including its contemporary forms of discrimination and resultant socioeconomic disadvantages ... [thus] rendering a black-white portrait of America anachronistic” Questioning “the reification of white suburbia as paramount space of American cultural belonging ... [that] spatial assimilation theory remains fixed on the normative objective of propinquity to whites in suburban locations.”

9. Leads us to questioncurrent-day significance of three primary frameworks addressing racial/ethnic residential patterning -- Assimilation, Stratification, Resurgent Ethnicity -- even as complementary constructs. Concern especially sharpened after realizing, and probing into, role of market makers in present-day racial/ethnicresidential fabric -- Articulated as the Market-Led Pluralism framework.

10. Assimilation Associated with Melting Pot ideal; Stems from Urban Ecology school of 1920s Immigrants, having adapted to US society, then move into established neighborhoods that generally are spatially more distant from the CBD In context of today, similar idea – Racial/ethnic minorities relocate to higher status areas in closerproximity to majority Caucasian population, but melting pot ideal is less central Structural Assimilation, measured by socio-economic characteristics such as income and education, differentiated from Cultural Assimilation, measured by indicators such as English language ability and length of residence in US (for immigrants) Also Segmented Assimilation – options of (i) Acculturating middle class values of dominant Caucasian society (traditional assimilation), (ii) Gravitating to underclass, or (iii) Advancing socio-economically [and spatially] while maintaining strong ties with origin community culture and society

11. Stratification Structural forces associated with housing discrimination, racial stereotyping, prejudicial preferences lead to segmented housing markets, neighborhoodstratification Disadvantaged groups in terms of race/ethnicity relegated to particular places; (upward) spatial mobility to other locations is impeded Resulting racial/ethnic location patterns seen to persisteven though judicial, legislative, and societal changes in the latter half of twentieth century moved current practices far afield from earlier ones View consistent with occurrence of inertia effects on socio-economic landscape (Brown, Lee, Lobao, and Chung 2005).

12. Resurgent Ethnicity I Why does segregation persist, after removal / amelioration of housing discrim, racial stereotyping, prejudicial preferences? Emphasizes racial/ethnic preference in residential choice, “in-group attraction” E.g. Asian + Hispanic immigrants who cluster in more affluent areas of New York / Los Angeles, sometimes without cultural assimilation such as language skills (Logan, Alba, Zhang 2002). Such racial/ethnic settlements better understood as “ethnic communities” driven by preference, rather than “immigrant enclaves” driven by economic and cultural constraints Generates (re-)segregation – even though integration (Assim) socio-economicallyfeasible and discrimination (Strat) abated Occurs because cultural + economic aspects of (im)migration are decoupled

13. Resurgent Ethnicity II Resurgent Ethnicity patterning occurs in (at least) three ways. 1. Spillover Effects related to invasion-succession; traditional enclaves and neighbors are insufficient to hold newcomers 2. Chain Migration; ties of immigrants with “assimilated” relatives or friends leads to settlement near them 3. High socio-economic status immigrants; settle directly in more affluent locales Resurgent Ethnicity articulated in terms of immigrants, but … Applies also to native-borns in traditional racial/ethnic enclaves who experience SES increase, and Choosetraditional enclave or another racial/ethnic enclave that is commensurate with their SES.

14. Resurgent Ethnicity III Implies two types of racial/ethnic neighborhood – 1. Traditional Enclaves that expand, absorb lower SES, less culturally assimilated immigrants, and native-borns 2. New Racial/Ethnic Neighborhoods in more affluent (??) areas, providing shelter to entrepreneurs. professionals, etc Chain Migration is common to both types of concentration, Spillover effects apply to traditional racial/ethnic enclaves Socio-Economic Status effects apply to resurgent ethnicity Neighborhoods. Spatial-Social Polarization is an outcome Heterolocalism parallel: “applies to recent populations of shared [racial/]ethnic identity [in] … a dispersed pattern of residential location, … while maintaining strong social cohesion … despite the lack of propinquity” (Zelinsky + Lee 1998, p. 293)

16. Stepping Away; Adjusting Our Lenses 1. Increasing racial/ethnic profile of suburbs, Ethnoburb, Safron Suburb 2. Discriminatory housing practices (Strat) greatly attenuated in impact 3. Inertia effects visible, but Stratification processes not strong in today’s residential sorting 4. Heterogeneous neighborhoods per se (Assim) not necessarily attractive + thus a marginal or irrelevant criteria in housing choice 5. Segmented Assimilation has currency but word “assimilation” carries baggage, and limits understanding current-day dynamics, especially because the process can be only partially assimilation 6. Resurgent Ethnicity more applicable current day, but how pervasive is in-group attraction as driver of racial/ethnic residential patterning?? 7. Racial/ethnic clusters might occur from personal networks/contacts as much as preference (or both) so assessing Resurgent Ethnicity is difficult 8. All frameworks miss “Market Makers” – ** MARKET-LED PLURALISM **

17. Market-Led Pluralism Components -- Developers -- unveil new urban spaces with culturally open communities Lending Agencies -- provide highly affordable mortgages to increasingly wide range of households Government Policiesdirected to affordable housing, home ownership as national priority, American dream commitment Real Estate Brokers/Agents-- discriminatory practices of past are illegal, profit reducing, and beside the point Consumers -- preferences, tempered by affordability, is shared, not differentiated, along racial/ethnic lines Communities -- own development agenda impacts housing markets Facilitating these are – Information that is pervasive + fluid (web, e-mail, cell phone) Procedures that are more systematized, automated, transparent Class-type elements, e.g. affordability and amenities (housing, Neighborhood), dominate consumption equation; not Culture Well working market mechanisms characterize new reality

18. Market-Led Pluralism Summary I Represents commercial perspective on today’s housing market, Owning and renting Today’s markets – open/dynamic -- compared w/ 20+ years ago (Stratification) Transportation improvements, regional planning, spatially dispersed employment opportunities -- loosened monocentric city grip – spatial spread/expansion Developers respond w/ enormous array of multi-household projects, often billed as “communities” -- single-family dwellings, traditional condominiums, condominium arrangements of single-family dwellings, rental properties – projects aimed at full range of market in terms of income -- in the process, also opens market of former residences (positive filtering)

21. Empirical Evidence on Builder Impact -- NYT reports New River community in Tampa MSA, exurban, one county removed from central city, has “38 percent Hispanic, 24 percent white, and 16 percent black.” More indirectly, considering influential segment of population who continually relocate (relos) in moving up corporate ladder, NYT notes “relos have segregated themselves, less by the old barriers of race, religion and national originthan byage, family status, education and, especially, income.” Columbus -- Table 2 highlights population characteristics of six sub/ex-urbanmunicipalities + one MSA county that experienced significant growth since 1990, largely through construction of newhomes + communities by builders (as on Figure 1) In all seven examples, minority population growth, ranging from 160 to 850 percent between 1990 and 2000, out-stripped growth of political unit overall.

23. Role of Building sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -- Builders target broad range of markets, rent and own segments Building in large quantities, communities, away from metro center, reflecting land availability and cost Housing supply, from entry-level to luxury, across full range of price-points Reflects market and anticipated demand at any given level. Amount of construction fueled by enormous increase in people with ability to own, (recounted in Lending Section). Building is race/ethnicity-blind, but if R/E dimension in market, may be addressed explicitly through advertising, welcoming gestures, etc. Creates derivative supply of older houses so segments can improve livingconditions -- “filtering up” Effect is centrifugal loosening of spatial patterns representing R/E aspects of residential mosaic Class-, not culture- considerations are paramount in this segment of M-LP

24. Market-Led Pluralism Summary II Moving products facilitated by burgeoning range of mortgage instruments + agencies, especially in past decade. Undergirding these are government initiatives carried out by FHA, FannieMae, FreddieMac, HUD, etc -- loosened mortgage + loan programs considerably -- pressed for racial/ethnic opportunities in housing -- promoted American Dream to/for all -- supported outreach that educates public in home buying procedures/possibilities Exhortations not merely sloganeering or vote-getting exercises; real and lots of $$$; potential gains for business/NGOs enormous; they respond accordingly “Today’s home purchase parallel to mindset in automobile buying; How much per month; current costs, future not factored in“

27. FannieMae American Dream Commitment Program in 2000 for “first time home buyers [so that] 18 million minority and underserved Americans can own or renta home by the end of the decade” “with housing and lending partners, we launched a wide range of mortgage innovations and initiatives that brought low-cost, consumer- friendly home financing to new people and places, and made it easier for minority families and the working poor to get their foot in the door of homeownershipor obtain safe, decent, affordable rental housing” An informant who specializes in mortgages noted “Consumers are much more educated today, at all SES levels. In 1990, when conventional mortgages were the norm, buyers often didn’t even know the difference between [or consequences of] a fixed or variable rate. Today ... major developers and lenders make a point of informing and educating people ... Also, home ownership is perceived by the market as much more possible, whereas that wasn’t the case in 1990.” Same informant drew parallel today’s housing market and automobiles; “[just as] you can get into a new car for so much per month; the pitch [in today’s housing market] is [often] in terms of present or current costs, not future costs”

28. Role of Lending Sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -- Burgeoning increase in mortgage products over last two decades, housing accessibility increases rapidly expandingsegment of pop Major impetus has been federal government commitment to home ownership + American Dream, institutions such as Federal Housing Authority (FHA), Federal National Mortgage Association (FannieMae) Embraces partnering of government + private enterprise, provides distinct incentives; private sectorresponded resoundingly Target of home ownership programs is lower income households, where race/ethnicity characteristics are over represented, but R/E + Fair Housing practices also explicit concern of programs Mortgage lending also enters rental unit market by programs + policies designed to increase R/E representation in quality rental unitsdispersed throughout metro area Spatial manifestation of govt program related mortgages in Columbus is highly uneven, visually correlates with maps showing the locations of R/E minorities + lower-priced new communities (building sector) Culture-type considerations play significant role in this segment of M-L P

29. The Home Mortgage Market I Traditionally dominated by Savings-Loans + conventional mortgages where pct of house price (typically 20%) paid up front. Changed dramatically in 1990s, opening home ownership to enormously wider spectrum of the population 1. Full service banks + specialized lending agencies now major players 2. Specialized lending agencies incl brokers who shop for mortgage country wide via web etc (e.g., California lender finances Columbus home buyer) 3. Mortgages immediately factored to secondary market comprised of large nation-wide banks (e.g., Wells Fargo) or govt-created entities (e.g., FreddieMac) – reduces/eliminates lender risk, increases capital turnover, stimulates market 4. Mortgage products proliferated -- FHA + VA programs, available for decades; now Fed Nat’l Mortgage Assoc (FannieMae) Community Home Buyer Programs (offer “low or no down payment”), buy-down mortgages, sub-prime lending, wrapping closing costs into mortgage itself, etc 5. Loosened credit rating requirements; e.g., debt to income ratio, typically 28/36 for conventional mtg-s but 29/41 for FHA mtg-s, + treated with greater flexibility Impact – Enormously expands the pool of potential home buyers!!

30. The Home Mortgage Market II Major impetus for proliferation is government/government-related entities FannieMae -- American Dream Commitment Program -- for “first time home buyers, 18 million minority/underserved can own/rent a home by end of decade” “we launched wide range of mortgage innovations and initiatives that brought low-cost, consumer-friendly home financing to new people ... made it easier for minority families/working poor to get foot in door of homeownership or ... safe, decent, affordable rental housing” US Department of Housing and Urban Development -- “HUD's mission is to increase homeownership, support community development, increase access to affordable housing free from discrimination”; claims that “Homeownership is a National Priority” President Bush -- wants to “increase the minority homeowners by at least 5.5 million before the end of decade” and proposed “zero-down-payment initiative” Rental housing programs – e.g., Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) authorizes “States ... to issue Federal tax credits for the acquisition, rehabilitation, new construction of affordable rental housing ... a project must have specific proportion of units set aside for lower income households and rents on these units limited to 30 percent of qualifying income”

31. The Home Mortgage Market II – Continued Exhortations not merely sloganeering or vote-getting exercises. Huge amounts of government $$$ back up what is said Efforts are “partnered” with financial institutions, local governments, real estate professionals, housing lenders, builders, and nonprofit housing organizations Simply put – Potential gains for NGOs and business entities have been -- and are -- enormous And they have responded accordingly.

32. The Home Mortgage Market III -- Responses 1. Developers (M/I, Dominion, Maronda) created/integrated financial arm within Firm (M/I Financial, Dominion Financial, MFC Mortgage) 2. Numerous free-standing mortgage agencies, in addition to full-service banks – e.g., Broadview Mortgage w/ offices throughout Ohio 3. Typical web site outlines home buying process (Home Buyers Guide, FAQs), describes loan products (Your Loan Options, Calculators), facilitates application (Apply On Line, Pre-Qualify Now), encourages personal contact (Talk With Us Today, Free Consultation) 4. Products include Blemished Credit Options, down payment assistance, no minimum credit score to qualify, adjustable rate mortgages with a below-market fixed rate for three years 5. Photos each “Home Loan Expert” with homey, comfortingwords -- “Call, e-mail, or visit Melanie ...[she] understands true meaning of customer service, Dedicated, ensures best mortgage products and rates” 6. Photo of Melanie indicates she is African American; a Spanish family name is common among staff; often home page has “Se Habla Espanol”

33. The Home Mortgage Market IV -- Consequences Bank VP who specializes in mortgages noted that -- 1. “Consumers much more educated today, at all SES levels. In 1990, when conventional mortgages were norm, buyers often didn’t even know difference between [or consequences of] fixed or variable rate. Today ... major developers and lenders make point of informing/educating ... Also, home ownership is perceived by market as much more possible; wasn’tcase in 1990.” 2. A parallel between today’s housing market and automobiles where “you can get into a new car for so much per month; the pitch [in today’s housing market] is [often] in terms of present or current costs, not future costs” 3. Consequence of focus on current costs and low/no down-payments is foreclosureincreases, especially in a down economy when individuals lose jobs. Scenario (i) -- interest rates rise for adjustable rate mortgages, which are less expensive initially. Scenario (ii) -- new houses, when property taxes kick in year or so after purchase. Scenario (iii) -- minimal/zero down-payment, home owner does not have cushion to coverreal estate commissions and other selling costs. 4. In Franklin County OH new foreclosure filings between 1994 and 2001rose from 1552 to 5007, with especially dramatic jump (32%) between 2000 + 2001 .

34. Market-Led Pluralism Summary III On demand side, Individuals respond to opportunity, within affordability constraint; realize amenities such as owning home, space/parks, school district choice, proximity to work, etc Overall, Profit + consumption are pervasive in equation, as always Market is open because discriminatory practices are illegal, less- or un-profitable, confronted by households (Stratification) Individual decisions might be driven by desire to assimilate or live with one’s own ((Segmented) Assimilation, Resurgent Ethnicity); some discriminatory practices (Stratification) continue In terms of variance explained, however, Market-Led Pluralism accounts for extraordinarily high proportion of the change in racial/ethnic residential patterns, at least since 1990

35. “Under some circumstances ... brokers are more interested in preventing ethnic tipping, and thereby preserving their white customer base, than they are in serving the interests of black or Hispanic customers.” (Yinger) “If many real estate agents have ‘a smiling face’ but a bigoted spirit, they have been doing a mighty poor job of keeping blacks out of white neighborhoods” (Thernstrom + Thernstrom) When it comes to color, all he knows is that “money is green” (Agent) “Our team has added a Spanish-speaking agent, Spanish-speaking mortgage lender, title company that speaks the language ... also I've invested in tapes to bring back Spanish that I haven't used in 50 years” Not simply benevolence or enlightenment -- “potential sanctions under current law include six- + seven-figure .. damage awards for victims” (Farley-Squires) ”Realtors today aren’t as concerned about fair housing and stuff [like that] so much as mold ... issue isn’t so much whose selling and whose buying [as it is] disclosure, disclosure, disclosure.” “sure, [legal] sanctions may not get down to the level of someone like myself ... but even if they did, self interest … is a good consumer product … whole business geared to having real estate be a good thing -- Board of Realtors to big developers + banks on down [to local guy like me] -- they’re all trying to create a quality [dependable, trustworthy] experience”

36. Role of Selling + Renting sector in Market-Led Pluralism -- Discriminatory practices continue in housing market, but empirical evidence (e.g., “Audit Studies”) indicates they constitute small share of realestate + rental transactions; have dropped dramatically over past three decades; continue to drop at steady pace Home owner informants gave no hint of encountering such practices, and other informants + map patterns, buttress conclusion that selling + renting practices are, mostly, distinctly non-discriminatory Shift reflects potential sanctions stemming from government policy and legal rulings; that discriminatory practicesnot linked to income as they were thirty years ago; that for many, maybe most, focus is taken up by other, more pressing concerns (e.g., mold, disclosures, inspections, termites) Related to latter is crossing of two trends over past three decades -- enormous decrease in racial/ethnic aversion at personal + institutional level; an enormous increase in consumer advocacy laws, practices, expectations Culture-type considerations were once paramount in this segment of M-LP, but class- considerations dominate today

38. Findings on Preferences -- For all thirteen items, no significant difference between Caucasians (C) and African Americans (AA) for MSA or Franklin County (F) Relative importance of items among the set of thirteen. Least important is Racial Composition of the Neighborhood and Racial Composition of school’s Student Body, the dimension given most attention in earlier research Economic Status of Student Body also is relatively unimportant Most important items are Good Investment or Resale Value, Safety of Neighborhood, Quality of Academic Programs Range of opinion -- consistently more divergence among African Americans than Caucasians + while not statistically different, AA’s are noticeably more concerned with Racial Composition of the Neighborhood and Student Body

39. From New Home Consultant for a builder -- “quality of life is the primary motivation for choosing a home, not the color of the neighbors ... Blacklick Ridge is pretty much a melting pot ... [and if there is a specific criteria] one thing people often say is ‘I want to live in a neighborhood where parents expect their children to attend college’” Thernstrom and Thernstrom -- note that middle-class African Americans are as prone to avoid poorer, higher crime, lower amenity neighborhoods as are Caucasians; that despite the parallelism, racism is attributed to Caucasians but not African Americans, when in fact -- “The views of middle-class blacks ... are not basically different from those of whites.”

40. Three-plus decades of racial/ethnic mixing in schools, work place, places of consumption -- together with policy shifts, new laws, successful legal challenges -- dramatic effect in terms of change in R/E aversions “These scouts, young people, are black, green, red, all kinds. They don't have the background of what ... occurred 20-30 years ago ... don't have a clue what the Vietnam War was about, the post war reaction of mid-70's, race riots ... moved forward [to the point that] they don’t understand characters such as Archie Bunker [of sit-com, All in the Family, fame] making fun [of prejudice] ... I find them open to ideas, willing to work with each other ... everywhere I go [with the scouts and elsewhere] I find diversity ... its change ... and we [also] find it in the approach to ... the overall market.” Thernstrom and Thernstrom -- “ ... half a century ago, most white Americans were distinctly uneasy about ... having black people ... in their neighborhoods ... [but] by 1972 ... the number [with this concern] ... had fallen so much that the question disappeared from surveys. It wasn’t an issue anymore. ... Prejudice against sharing a neighborhood with African Americans has declined so precipitously that whites today are ... far more nervous about ... having a next-door neighbor who ... is a religious fanatic than ... having one who is black.”

41. Role of Consumer sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -- Givenavailable housing (Build sector), funds for buying or renting (Lend sector), that discriminatory biases are not introduced by market agents (Sell-Rent sector), racial/ethnic representation in any given place will depend on, reflect, consumer preferences We argue -- Consumption equation of seeking neighborhood + housing amenities, tempered by affordability, is shared, notdifferentiated by R/E Supported by informant data, survey of 1998 home buyers, by circumstantial reasoning regarding marked decline in R/E aversion due to mixing in schools, work, places of consumption Sample of 1998 home buyers indicates, in choosing new home, racial composition of neighborhood + schools was least important of 13 housing preference items, for both AA’s C’s, and these groups did not significantly differ from one another in this preference, or others Calls intoquestionfocus, and current-day relevance of earlier research that dwells on neighborhood composition in terms of race Class-, notculture- considerations are paramount in this segment of M-LP

42. Role of Local Communities in Market-Led Pluralism context -- Residential expansion occurs within context set by local communities, which impose own development agenda, or lack there of, on markets Driving agenda -- economic growth, enhancing/protecting tax base, creating/maintaining community style, pop size, avoiding strangle by (other) suburbs Agenda may vary in breadth, from one/two community sectors (e.g., housing, education) to full range in balanced-growth manner Tools -- include land annexation (thru utility provision, infrastructure enhancement), local government/administrative consolidation, zoning, architectural review, reconciling conflicting agendas Important -- administrative capacity, foresight in planning process (when established, what kind of process, etc), community history Within MSA, communities vary greatly in planning endeavors; spatially differentiated outcomes in cost, type, character of housing, related amenities. Race/ethnicity characteristics impacted accordingly Employment associated with community affects pop composition Class-, not culture- paramount, but culture motivation readily masked by planning agenda that is economically exclusive

43. “Pro-development is very common among municipalities -- most cities think that growth for growth’s sake is good -- others, but not many, say ‘growth of what kind’” “some [leaders] are simply grasping for whatever they can get; others will say ‘no’ and hold out for what they want”. “ ... development drives growth, but the city/township [unit] determines the kind of growth using zoning, architectural standards, design review, development standards [etc]” Mission Statement of Cleveland Heights Ohio goal “To remain a leader in integration, assuring mutual respect among a racially and culturally diverse population”.

44. Employment Profile Effects -- Planned or Accidental -- S/W Columbus -- Defense Construction Supply Center (DCSC); well-paying, good-benefit jobs, more often custodial, office clerk, blue collar-type sectors; staffed by (former) armed forces, many African American or other minorities / Similarly, Rickenbacker Port Authority complex, former military base -- Both precededPickerington + Reynoldsburgdevelopment North Franklin County and beyond is more high tech, new economy, white collar positions, higher education expectations / Cardinal Health Corporate Office, Compuserve-WorldCom (formerly), Limited Corporate Office, Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), Scott Lawn Care Corporate Office, Verizon Wireless, Wendy’s Corporate Office -- Ohio Wesleyan, Otterbein, other institutions of higher learning -- major US Honda plant accompanied by many Asian-based suppliers

46. Table 4 -- Delaware County, coherent forward-looking planning, Relative strength in Management + Professional Less in Service, Construction-Maintenance, Production- Transportation occupations Highest household income and home value Minority representation 5.0% (3rd highest); African American 2.5% (norm) Madison + Pickaway Counties Lowest in Management + Professional Highest in Construction-Maintenance, Service, Production-Transportation Income and home value at very bottom end Minority representation, 7.3% + 7.2 % (highest); African Americans6.2% + 6.4% (highest)

47. Concluding Observations on Market-Led Pluralism -- M-LP directly reflects workings of today’s housing market within which race/ethnicity distinctions occur An account of how things operate, not abstraction, unlike many social science frameworks. Our thinking embraces the profit-motive and related self-interest mechanismsas a dominant force in R/E issues; eg -- Discriminatory practices, central to the stratification framework, proliferated and continued only so long as financial gain was there; in general, no longer the case As places of work and consumption become increasingly multiE/R, fading of Caucasian ideal such that assimilation per se becomes marginal/irrelevant in housing choice, heterogeneousneighborhoodsnot attractive in themselves, personal utility functions shift towards more contemporary concerns (schools, safety, investment value), and are shared, not R/E distinct

48. In different venue -- “the ski industry is ... realizing ... it has to go multicultural to grow, How white do you think your resort can be in 35 years and still be in business?” Wynter (2002) -- “The much maligned melting pot ... is bubbling again ... this time whiteness itself is finally being dissolved into a larger identity that includes blacks, Hispanics, and Asians ... big businessturned up that flame …while white privilege still obtains in America, it’s becoming a luxury that’s less and less fashionable and more and more costly to maintain … I can’t imagine corporate capital supporting the cost of whiteness past its economic retirement age. Never forget: The underlying motivation for the institution of political whiteness has always been economic first and social second. Henceno economic return, no more whiteness.”