Organizational studies

1. Organizational studies Sociology of media organizations

2. Why study media organizations? • Many organizational sociologists or media studies scholars argue that the source of mass culture within a society (and, to a lesser extent, high or folk culture) is not mad individual geniuses but, in fact, organizations that resemble producers of any mass commodity

3. Why study media organizations? • Media organizations have a set of ‘functions’ to perform in any society • Lasswell; Lazarsfeld & Merton; Wright • Highly public organizations creating works that draw widespread attention • Significant economic impact • Time spent, other social effects • Cultural products have a number of unusual characteristics, calling for unusual structures • Uniqueness of ‘creative’ organizations

4. Press organizations are considered crucial • The press, especially, is thought to be crucial to a working democracy • Inform the electorate • Spark debate • Provide a channel for communication between the public and the elite • Serve as a watchdog on government

5. Press myths • Crusading journalist, loner fighting corruption • Fourth estate, acting as gadfly • Watchdog on government • Conflictual relationship • Holding up a mirror to society • Simply reacting to, and transcribing, the important events of the day

10. Press myths • Hard-bitten, fiercely independent editors standing up for the downtrodden against the powerful of society • “Comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable”

11. Film, entertainment myths • Talented, wild and crazy individuals giving expression to unique and innovative ideas • Mad geniuses driven by an inner need to express themselves through their art • Social self-examination through cultural expression • Powerful studio system controlling talent and money, producing a “star system”

12. Entertainment myths • Shallow, narcissistic, deviant stars caught up in a world of mirrors and adoration • “Sex, drugs, and Rock & Roll”

13. Organizational sociologists look at the culture industry • Scholars attempt to determine how a “product” that is supposedly based on unique, uncertain and occasional leaps of inspiration or else the unpredictable ebb and flow of social events can be produced and disseminated on a regular schedule, with the same format, hour after hour, day after day, week after week

14. Common characteristics of all organizations apply to media • Goal-directed • Survival • Profit-oriented • Seek control over suppliers, clients • Bureaucratized, routinized behaviors • Hierarchical structure • Complex set of functions • Role positions • Departmentalization

15. Additional concerns • How do organizations control, allow, support the development of creative products? • Highly uncertain audience response to products • Blockbusters v. ‘art’ • What organizational structures and routines are developed in order to meet the demands of content production? • “routinizing the unexpected” • What is the influence of organizational structure on the content ultimately produced and disseminated?

16. How are interorganizational/institutional relationships developed and maintained? How do these relationships influence the content generated and distributed? • How do media organizations stand in relation to the state and the public? The powerful?

17. Press organizations • The most heavily-studied of creative organizations • Blossoming of organizational studies in the 1970s • Tuchman • Gans • Fishman • Roshco • Epstein • Sigal • Sigelman • Schudson • Schiller

18. Influences on the news product • Individual journalist • News department • News organization • Corporation • Technology • Profession • Industry • Inter-institutional influences • Nation/culture

19. The daily agenda of reports produced by the media and called "news" is not the inevitable product of chance events; it is the result of decisions made within a news organization. (Epstein, 1981)

20. Let’s look at a given ‘event’ • A J-walker in a run-down area of town is hit by an SUV driving too fast late at night. • Is this ‘news’? • From the standpoint of the individual journalists it may be hard to predict • However, organizational and professional norms for content make the call easier • WLEX • WUKY • Herald-Leader

21. If the event is picked up by a news organization it is “news” • How much play does it get? • Front page/top story? • Who is a source for the story? • What information is included in the story? • Photos/video? • What is the actual verbal construction of the story? • Adjective/metaphor • Framing • Headline/subheads

22. What then? • Is there a follow-up? • Is there another piece meant to give context to the story? • Are subjects allowed a response to the presentation? • I was NOT drunk!

23. News is a constructed product • Organizations construct several routines and controls put in place to see that the ultimate ‘story’ and show conform to accepted practice • Inverted pyramid • Story types • Objectivity (both sides) • Editing system • Meeting at beginning of day to determine stories to cover, conflicts among ‘desks’ about what should be covered, etc.

24. How are organizational approaches to news maintained? • Socialization of new journalists to ‘editorial policy’ • Breed • Hiring practices • Sigelman • Professional training

25. How are views of news/professional norms maintained over distance? • Elite media serve as models for those further down the status totem, with those yet lower looking to dailies/affiliates in the larger regional cities, etc. • Journalists prepare themselves to move upmarket by pre-socializing themselves • Journalism schools with curricula and texts that are developed based on national models

26. Organizational practices • Television—the role of the anchor • Story structure wrapped by anchor (intro, questioning, extro) • Popularity is critical to success of show • National anchors have great power in determining structure of news show • Movement toward “on-air personalities” and away from seasoned journalists

27. Organizational practices • Commitment to enterprise journalism • Usually quite low (Gans, Sigelman) • Declining due to economics • Acceptance, use of, publicity from PR sources • Widespread, though there are limits imposed by professional norms • Significantly reduces costs of production

28. Sex, drugs and mayhem in February (ratings hypo) • National news focuses on geography near to network headquarters • May be less so due to technological change

29. Reduction of uncertainty • Routines • Beat system (“newsnet”) (Tuchman) • Regular features • Weather • Sports • Maintenance of material for slow days • “Feature stories” • PR content • Enterprise stories • Newswires, content sources

30. Journalism as a profession • Institutionalization (university departments) • Development of organizations • Publications critiquing practice • Columbia Journalism Review • Awards/ceremonies • Professional “ideology” • News values • Objectivity • Watchdog role (on government)

31. Professional culture • “Public’s right to know” • Pictures of victims • Rape stories, etc. • Demand for access to official information, access to private individuals involved in public issues, events • First Amendment philosophy

32. Professional expertise • “Nose for news” • What are news values? • Characteristics of events that make them appropriate for construction as news

33. Professional culture v. organizational demands • At times in conflict—profit v. public service • “When MBAs rule the newsroom” • Most often complementary or mutually supportive • “Public’s right to know” how a woman whose child was just found dead feels

34. Newsworker explanations • Objectivity • Separation of editorial from hard news • Balancing • Facticity • Neutrality • Reliance on official sources • Typifications (Tuchman)

35. Influence of the owner • Socialization of newsworkers • Breed • Ability to fire employees • Rarely exercised • Budgeting • Choice of management • Public persona • Ideology--belief in rights of ownership

36. Influence of owner (counterbalance) • Professional norms • Independence of management • Professional revolution in management philosophy • Public demands for objective news coverage • Organized groups • Politicians • Market influences

37. Influence of powerful (government) • Source of news • News, by definition, about government action • Expectations of readers/viewers • Provide regular content that can be processed • Newsnet • Can influence news play • “Scoops” • Access • “Background”

38. Influence of the powerful • Interpersonal influence • Friendship, “capture” • Stroking, personal access to parties, etc. • Journalists no longer represent working class—high paid, privileged group • Professionalization of press relations • PR professionals • College courses, curriculum development, ethics

39. Influence of the economic system • Information products • “Natural monopoly” Public goods Underproduction Government subsidy Advertising Substitution of “audience attention” sold for end-user sales of content Impact of cable (end-user) substitution for broadcast

40. Press organizations react to the economic system • Do not act as a “quasi-public service” • Profit-oriented organization • Budgeting for various activities • Low budget for foreign news, correspondents • Washington bureau seen as a sign of quality • “Metro pull-back” • Need to generate advertising • Acceptance of PR content • Positive relations with advertisers • Cheap content • Topical determination according to advertiser demands • “Auto section”