Disadur dari: Writing Academic English by Alice Oshima Ann Hogue, 1997

1. Writing Academic English Disadur dari: Writing Academic English by Alice Oshima Ann Hogue, 1997

2. Dr. Mashadi Said (Secretary for Master’s Program in Translation, Gunadarma University, Jakarta) • Drs. In English Literature and Education, 1984 • Post Graduate Diploma in Applied Linguistics, 1990 • Master of Education in English Education, 1994 • Ph D. in English Education, 1998

3. What are we going to discuss in this course? I. Writing a Paragraph 1. The Process of Academic Writing 2. What Is a Paragraph? 3. Unity and Outlining 4. Coherence 5. Kinds of Logical Order 6. Concrete support I 7. Concrete support II

4. II. Writing an Essay . 1. The Essay The Introductory Paragraph The Concluding Paragraph The Essay Body: Outlining Transition signals between paragraph 2. Patterns of Essay Organization

5. Writing process • Stage 1: Prewriting • Step 1: Choosing and narrowing a topic Environment Pollution Ocean pollution Oil spills Effects on sea life

6. Step 2: Brainstorming • Three useful brainstorming techniques 1. Listing think about your topic and quickly make a list of whatever words or phrases come into your mind. Your purpose is to produce as many ideas as possible in a short time, and goal is to find a specific focus for your topic.

7. Model: Communication Problems Poor verbal skills New language American talk too fast Use slang and idioms Lack confidence Use incomplete sentences Poor pronunciation American too difficult to understand Unclear expression

8. 2. Free-writing • Write freely about a topic. Your purpose is to generate as many ideas as possible and to write them down without worrying about appropriateness, grammar, spelling, logic, or organization.

9. 3. Clustering • In the center of your paper write a topic and draw a “balloon” around it. This is your center. Then write whatever ideas come to you in balloons around the core. Think each of these ideas and make more balloons around them.

10. Model Very religious vacation Stays late at office My father Does accounting For mosque workaholic Work six days a week Every Friday Heart problem Boring life

11. Stage II: Planning (outlining) • Step1: Making sub-lists • Model: Communication Problems A. Poor verbal skills -Lack vocabulary -Poor pronunciation B. American difficult to understand -Use incomplete sentences -Use unclear expressions -Talk too fast -Use slang and idioms

12. Step 2: The topic Sentence • Write a topic sentence. It is the most general sentence in a paragraph, and it expresses the central focus of the paragraph.

13. Step 3: Outlining • Model: Communication Problems TS: International students in the United States face communication problems with Americans. SP: A. International students have poor verbal skills. SD: 1. lack vocabulary SD: 2. have poor pronunciation SP: B. American are difficult to understand SD: 1. use incomplete sentences SD: 2. use unclear expressions SD: 3. talk too fast SD: 4. use slang and idioms

14. Stage III Writing and Revising Drafts • Step 1: Writing the first Rough Draft • Step 2: Revising Content and Organization • Step 3: Proofreading the Second Draft • Step 4: Writing the Final Copy

15. WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH? A basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea.

16. Model: Paragraph Structure GOLDGold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coins remains as untarnished to day as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronaut's suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

17. The Three Parts of A Good Paragraph • Topic sentence: • States the main idea of the paragraph • Usually the first sentence in a paragraph • Summarizes the main idea of your paragraph. • Indicates to the reader what your paragraph will be about. • States the controlling idea. TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics

18. Topic Sentence • Complete sentence • Contains both a topic and controlling idea • Gives only one main idea Compare: The slang expression so long (meaning “good bye”) is probably a corruption of the Arabic salaam. (too specific) English is a difficult language to learn. (too general) The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious. (good)

19. Remember • A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific Too general: American food is terrible. Too specific: American food is tasteless and greasy because Americans use too many canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods and because everything is fried in oil or butter. Good: American food is tasteless and greasy. • Do not include too many unrelated ideas in your topic sentence Too many ideas: San Francisco is famous for its temperate climate, its many tourist attractions, and its cosmopolitan atmosphere. Good: San Francisco is famous for its cosmopolitan atmosphere

20. Controlling Idea: • Makes a specific comment about the topic, indicating what the rest of the paragraph will say about the topic. • It limits or control the topic to a specific aspect of the topic to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.

21. GOLDGold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coins remains as untarnished to day as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronaut's suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

22. Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

23. Supporting sentence What are supporting sentences?They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph. What do they do?They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. How do I write them?You should give supporting facts, details, and examples.

24. Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

25. Concluding/Closing Sentence What is the concluding sentence?The concluding sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. What does it do?It restates the main idea of your paragraph. How do I write one?Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words.

26. Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

27. Example GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coins remains as untarnished to day as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronaut's suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. 5 10

28. Concluding Sentence(Not absolutely necessary) • It signals the end of a paragraph. • It summarizes the main points of a paragraph. • It gives a final comment on the topic and leave the reader with the most important idea to think about.

29. END-OF PARAGRAPH SIGNALS

30. Unity What is unity?Only one main idea is discussed What does it do?Explain or prove the main idea stated in the topic sentence. How do I write one?Every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea stated in the topic sentence.Do not include any information off the topic.

31. Example: Paragraph 1 The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most part of the world. In Central and Eastern Europe. HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV-infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,00, by the end of 1995. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on. In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, 10 percent of the woman visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV, and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Mothers can give the HIV virus to their children during pregnancy and childbirth are when breast-feeding the virus is also transmitted through blood and blood products. For example, drug users who share needles may become infected. The main method of transmission is, of course, unprotected sex, which accounts for 75 to 85 percent of infections.

32. Paragraph 2 The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most parts of the world. In Central and Eastern Europe. HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV-infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,00, by the end of 1995. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on. In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, 10 percent of the woman visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV, and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Around the world, HIV infection rates are sky-rocketing among sex workers. In Nairobi, Kenya, 80 percent of sex workers are infected, and in Vietnam, the rate of infection climbed from 9 percent to 38 percent between 1992 and 1995. These statistic illustrate with frightening clarity that HIV/AIDS is still a major health problem in most areas of the world.

33. Coherence What is coherence?Latin:”cohere” “hold together” Sentences must hold together. What does it do?Easy to read and understand How do I write one? • The movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth. • Supporting sentences are in some kind of logical orders • Your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals

34. 4 Ways to achieve coherence • Repeating key nouns • Using pronouns that refer back to key nouns • Use transition signal to show how one idea is related to the next • Arrange your sentences in logical order

35. Paragraph with coherence GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coins remains as untarnished to day as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronaut's suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

36. Transition signals (Traffic signs) First, second, next, finally, therefore, and, however, in conclusion, on the other hand, as a result, similarly , moreover, furthermore, in addition, in contrast Logical order • Chronological order: in the order of their occurrence in time. 1. Narration 2. Process, procedures • Order of importance • Comparison/contrast

37. Concrete support:How to prove our points • Support your topic sentence by using specific and factual details. * Examples * Statistics * Quotation * Paraphrase * Summary

38. Prewriting Paragraphs What is the prewriting stage? The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing. How do I write one? 1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. 2. Open your notebook. 3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. 4. Write down your own ideas. 5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. 6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea.

39. Writing Paragraphs What is the writing stage?The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences. How do I write one? • Open your notebook and word processor. • Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence. • Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning. • Focus on the main idea of your paragraph. • Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas.

40. Editing Paragraphs What is the editing stage?The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them. Grammar and Spelling Check your spelling. Check your grammar. Read your essay again. Make sure each sentence has a subject. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other. Check the verb tenses of each sentence. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.

41. Style and Organization Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea. Make sure you have a closing sentence. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea. See if your paragraph is interesting.

42. Publishing Paragraphs • What is the publishing stage?The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph to hand in. • Three Publishing Steps: • Make a paper copy of your paragraph. • Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents. • Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

43. Kata Hubung • Gabungan: bersama, beserta, dan, dan lagi, lagi, lagi pula, serta, selain, tambahan lagi, tambahan pula. • Pertentangan: hanya, melainkan, padahal, sebailiknya, sedang, sedangkan, tapi, tetapi. • Pilihan: antara … dan, atau, atau … atau

44. Kata hubung • Ketercakupan: baik … maupun, baik … atupun. • Runtunan waktu: kemudian, lantas, lalu. • Penekanan: bahkan, malah, malahan. • Penjelas: ialah, yakni, yaitu.

45. An example of a Paragraph in Indonesian • Keadaan Indonesia di sbawah pemerintahan presiden sebelumnya-Soeharto- dan setelah keruntuhan pemerintahannya pada tahun 1998, mempunyai catatan mengenai HAM yang pernah dan masih sangat buruk. Menurut catatan Departemen Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat tahun 2004, agen pemerintah terus melaporkan mengenai penganiayaan yang kebanyakan terjadi di daerah konflik yang terjadi beberapa tahun belakangan ini. Anggota satuan pengaman serta anggota pergerakan separatis terutama di Aceh dan Papua dibunuh, disiksa, diperkosa, dipukuli, dan masyarakat sipil diperlakukan semena-mena. Petugas kepolisian biasanya menggunakan senjata berbahaya bahkan kadang mematikan ketika menangkap para tersangka guna mendapatkan informasi atau pengakuan. Kesulitan-kesulitan lainnya termasuk sistem pengadilan yang korupsi gagal membela korban kejahatan HAM atau menahan pelaku kejahatan yang bertanggung jawab. Petugas kepolisian mengintimidasi dan memeras untuk menghindari kebenaran. Percekcokan mengenai masalah tanah mengakibatkan banyak kejahatan HAM dan seringkali diikuti dengan pengusiran bahkan beberapa diselesaikan dengan tindak kekerasan.

46. The Use of Indonesian Preposition • Akan Bedasarkan (= berdasar akan) Haus akan hiburan Kesadaran akan tanggung jawab Rindu akan kampung halaman Sadar akan kewajibannya Setuju akan usul ketua RT

47. The Use of Indonesian Preposition • Akibat: Akibat hujan lebat, kecerobohannya • Atas: Atas daras, nama, perintah, pertanyaan • Bagaikan: Bagaikan bidadari Bagaikan disambar petir • Beserta: beserta semua anggota

48. The Use of Indonesian Preposition • Bagi: Bagi umat manusia • Bahwa: Bahwa anaknya telah lulus ujian • Berkat: Berkat kesungguhan belajarnya • Bersama: Bersama kedua saudaranya • Bersama-sama: bersama-sama pihak keluarga

49. The Use of Indonesian Preposition • Buat: buat para pelajar • Dalam: dalam periode itu • Dalam menangani perkara itu • Dari: dari negara industri • Daripada: daripada orang itu melakukan kejahatan • Demi: demi kesempurnaan buku ini

50. The Use of Indonesian Preposition • Di: di toko buku, di rumah saudara • Ke: ke kampus, ke rumah • Menurut: mernurut perkiraan para ahli • Sampai: sampai saat ini • Sebagai: sebagai orang desa • Menjelang: menjelang tengah hari • Pada: pada masa sekarang