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Socio-cultural Psychology

Socio-cultural Psychology. GENERAL INFORMATION ON SOCIO-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOG Y * Cultural Psychologists: study the effects of culture on behavior * Cross-cultural Psychologists: compare members of different societies

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Socio-cultural Psychology

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  1. Socio-cultural Psychology

  2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON SOCIO-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY * Cultural Psychologists: study the effects of culture on behavior * Cross-cultural Psychologists: compare members of different societies * Both cultural and cross-cultural overlap with cultural anthropology – the study of customs within and across human culture. * Culture exerts powerful effects on behavior Sometimes directly conflicting with biological dispositions ie. Cultural pressure for Western women to be very thin * Cultural attitudes and traditions reflect history, physical environment, economy and survival needs.

  3. Socio-cultural PsychologyVocabulary Individualist culture Collectivist culture Social identity Ethnic identity Acculturation Culture-free tests Culture-fair tests Stereotype threat Ethnocentrism Stereotype prejudice Contact hypothesis Polychronic culture Socio-cultural Reductionism Norms (social) Groupthink Diffusion of responsibility Attribution theory Situational attributions Dispositional attributions Fundamental attribution error Self-serving bias Just-world hypothesis Need for achievement (nAch) Culture Cultural psychologists Conversational distance Monochronic culture

  4. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA):Socio-cultural cognition • Learning Outcomes: • Outline principles that define the socio-cultural level of analysis • Explain how principles that define the socio-cultural level of analysis may be demonstrated in research through theories and/or studies • Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the socio-cultural level of analysis • Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the socio-cultural level of analysis • Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior • Discuss two errors in attributions • Evaluate social identity theory • Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior

  5. Principles of the Socio-Cultural LOA • 1: Human beings: • * are social animals • * have a basic need to “belong” • This relationship is bidirectional • Individual behavior is affected by the group • and • Individual effects group behavior • 2: Culture influences behavior • Culture is: • “norms and values that define a society” • “shared rules that govern behavior of members of a community or society” • AND Set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that community or society 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d

  6. Principles of the Socio-Cultural LOA (cont’d) • 3: Humans have a social self • Meaning: • “not only do they have an individual identity, but also a collective of social one” • ie.: Princess Diana, Olympics, Super-bowl • 4: People’s views of the world are resistant to change • World view means: • The way the world is understood; • -how it works the way it does • -why it works the way it does • -what values are essential for it • I am not who I think I am. I am not who you think I am. Rather, I am who I think you think I am. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d

  7. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d REFLECTION: Brainstorm a list of groups you belong to. Now answer the following questions: How important are these groups in your personal identity? What needs do these different groups fill in your life? How do these groups affect your behavior and personality?

  8. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d • Research methods at the Socio-cultural LOA • Goal = to see how people interact with each other • Tend to be: • qualitative • as realistic as possible • naturalistic • 1) Participant Observation • When researchers immerse themselves in setting and observe behavior • a) Overt Observation • * participants know they are being observed • * requires trust • * goal is “seeing through their eyes” • (List Studies)

  9. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d • Research methods at the Socio-cultural LOA cont’d • 1) Participant Observation, cont’d • b) Covert Observation • * participants do NOT know they are being observed • * done through deceit • * difficulties taking notes & rely on memory leaving data open to distortion (List studies) THINK….. Discuss the ethical concerns you would have with this research

  10. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d C) Attribution Theory People are motivated to explain their own and others’ behavior by attributing causes of the behavior to a situation or a disposition Situation: The cause of the action is something in the situation or the environment Disposition: The cause of the action is something WITHIN the person. 1) Inferences about intention and responsibility ie. date late, no phone call, boss yells a) actor-observer effect * depends on whether they are performing it = situational (or external factors) (missed a bus, got run over by a car, kids sick) observing it = dispositional (personal/internal factors) (forgetful, thoughtless, menopausal)

  11. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d C) Attribution Theory cont’d 2) Errors in attribution a) Fundamental Attribution Error: We tend to attribute other people’s actions and misfortunes to their personal traits rather than to situational forces. i) More pervasive in individualistic cultures (Western) ii) Urban children more susceptible iii) Best thought of as a bias iv) Situational vs dispositional (ie. Matt Damon, game show host) (List Studies)

  12. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d C) Attribution Theory cont’d 3) Self-serving bias Tendency to take credit for one’s good actions and rationalize one’s mistakes. a) to protect our self-esteem b) COGNITIVE FACTORS contribute: when we expect to succeed and do: we attribute it to our skill and ability do not: it is “bad luck” or external factors when we expect to fail: and do: dispositional factors (personality) do not: it is “good luck” or situation Once again – observed in the Western world.

  13. NOTE: * Severely depressed tend to make more dispositional attributions thus blaming themselves for feeling miserable. * Happy couples tend to make situational attributions for partners’ lapses and dispositional attributions for positive behaviors. • Just-world hypothesis: Notion that the world is fair and justice is served; that bad people are punished and good people rewarded • “blaming the victim” If something bad happens, we want to believe that people are fundamentally good so we “blame the victim”

  14. Modesty Bias • Cultural differences: • Americans attribute success to ability while Japanese explain their failures to LACK OF ABILITY. • Studies: Japanese – Chandler et a. (1990), Nepalese – Watkins & Regmi (1990) • Chinese students who exhibited modesty bias were more popular with peers • Chinese – Bond, Leung & Wan (1982)

  15. Who are you? Take a few moments to complete this sentence: “I am ___________________” Your response to this question will be influenced by your cultural background.

  16. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d D) Social Identity Theory Individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self esteem (Henry Tajfel, 1971) Personal Achievements Personal identity Need for self-esteem Group Achievements Self-esteem Social Identities Favoritism toward ingroups and derogation of outgroups

  17. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d • Social Identity Theory cont’d • 1) Social comparison • in-group vs out-group OR US vs THEM • a) Threats to one’s self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism • b) Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance one’s self- esteem • Tajfel calls this: “the establishment of postive distinctiveness.” • Charles Perdue and others (1990) found that subtly priming “ingroup” pronouns such as we, us, and ours triggered positive emotions in participants while “outgroup” pronouns such as they, them and theirs elicited negative emotions. • [also look at Fein & Spencer (1997)]

  18. Think about it….. At a pep rally students cheer and praise members of “their” team and mock or criticize the “other” team. Do you think that pep rallies are effective? Why or why not? Social Identity Theory has been used to explain social phenomena such as ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, and a pattern of discrimination against the out-group

  19. 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d • Social Representations: (Serge Moscovici) • The shared beliefs and explanations held by the society in which we live or the group to which we belong • 1) Foundation of social cognition- helps us develop a common understanding of the world (social contract) • Provides code for social exchange • Develops cultural schemas fundamental to the identity of the group • Provide a common understanding for communication within the group • Studies: • Adler (1990) – “sharing” for Russian/American mothers • Howarth (2002) – adolescents living in Brixton (views from “outsiders” vs “residents”) Sound familiar?

  20. Stereotyping: • A social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes • Sources of stereotypes • Personal experience • Gate keepers – media, parents and other members of our culture • “Grain of Truth” hypothesis • Experience with individual generalized to group • d) “illusory correlation”- people see the relationship between two variables that don’t actually exist. • Confirmation bias • Pay attention to behaviors/information that confirms belief • *Makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d

  21. Stereotype threat: • Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat or expectation of being treated or judges stereotypically. • This creates “spotlight anxiety” --the fear or threat creates pressure and stress that leads to “underperformance”= inadvertently confirms the stereotype. • Steele and Aronson (1995)

  22. F) Stereotyping cont’d 1) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis (LOA): Socio-cultural cognition cont’d In 1994 the book The Bell Curve was published discussing the IQs of different ethnic groups. One of the stereotypes it perpetuated was that all Asians are very intelligent. 1) In spite of this being a rather “positive” stereotype, how could this also be an example of stereotype threat? 2) What are the negative effects of such a stereotype? ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

  23. Research problems: • Social desirability effect: • confounding variable that challenges“self-report” and survey methods of research. • People respond to a “social” situation or questions in a manner they believe is correct based on stereotypes. • Fear of “politically incorrect” answers.

  24. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis:Social and Cultural Norms • Learning Outcomes: • Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies • Discuss the use of compliance techniques • Evaluate research on conformity to group norms • Discuss factors influencing conformity • Define the terms culture and cultural norms • Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior • Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts

  25. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social Learning Theory • Humans learn behavior by watching models and imitating their behavior (observational learning) • Observations • Expectations Social Learning • Perceptions • Motivational • Beliefs

  26. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social Learning Theory • According to Bandura social learning involves: a) 1ST: ATTENTION The person must first pay attention to the model b) 2nd : RETENTION The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed c) 3rd : MOTOR REPRODUCTION The observer has to be able to replicate the action d) 4th : MOTIVATION Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned

  27. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social Learning Theory cont’d • Bandura’s theory cont’d: • 4th : MOTIVATION (cont’d) • is complex and involves several factors • i) consistency • consistent behavior across situations • ii) Identification with the model • imitate models like ourselves (age & gender) • iii) Rewards/punishment • vicarious reinforcement (observational learning) • iv) Liking the model • warm & friendly models (altruism) • STUDIES: Bandura (1961) Bobo Doll, Heusmann & Eron (1986) Television violence and aggression,

  28. The Sabido Method • Run an internet search on the Sabido method. Try: www.populationmedia.org/what/sabido-method • Find examples of the application of the method and discuss its effectiveness. Notice how it has been applied cross-culturally. • Answer the following question: "Is the show Glee a good show for kids?  • Using the Social Learning Theory, the Sabido method, and valid resources, justify your answer. • Due: April 13th

  29. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: • 1) Compliance – the result of direct pressure to respond to a request. • Factors that influence compliance • Authority • Commitment • Liking • Reciprocity • Scarcity • Social proof

  30. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: • 2) Conformity – tendency to adjust one’s thoughts feelings or behavior in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual, group, or accepted standards about situations (“peer pressure) • Factors that influence conformity • Group size • Size of majority • Unanimity • Size of discrepancy • Confidence • Self-esteem ASCH Effect: influence of a group majority on the judgments of an individual Group pressure prevailed between 50% & 80% STUDIES: Asch (1951), Asch (1955) group size, Asch (1956) unanimity, Perrin & Spencer (1988) confidence, Stang (1973) self-esteem

  31. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity cont’d b) Circumstances more likely to cause conformity 1) When a judgment task is difficult or ambiguous 2) When the group members are perceived as especially competent 3) When responses are given publicly rather than privately 4) When group majority is unanimous

  32. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity cont’d Factors that influence groupthink c) Groupthink – members attempt to conform to what each believes to be the consensus of the group. Individually would find these actions unwise. 1) Isolation of the group 2) High group cohesiveness 3) Directive leadership 4) Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures 5) Homogeneity of members’ social background and ideology 6) High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader Ie. Pearl Harbor, Vietnam War, Enron, Iraq

  33. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence 2) conformity c) groupthink cont’d • How can minority opinions sway the majority • 1. Dissenting opinions produce uncertainty and doubt • 2. Dissenting opinions show that alternatives exist • 3. Consistency shows that there is a commitment to the alternative view STUDIES: Moscovici & Lage (1976), Hogg & Vaughn (1995) Schwartz & Watkins, (2003) Individual heroic defiance (Sherron Watkins, Army Reservist Joe Darby)

  34. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity cont’d • d) Social Norms • A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate & acceptable for its members, attitudes & behaviors. (“unwritten rules) STUDIES: Newcomb (1943) & Newcomb et.al, (1967) Social norms influence students’ political views; Prentice & Miller (1993) & Schroeder & Prentice (1995) Attitudes about sex and alcohol

  35. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity cont’d e) Cultural norms: behavior patterns that are typical of a specific group Definition of culture: a dynamic (changing over time) system of rules, explicit (written) and implicit (understood) established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors.

  36. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity e) cultural norms cont’d • 1) Surface culture: visible, ie. Food, rituals, clothing • 2) Deep culture: cannot be seen ie. beliefs, attitudes & values STUDIES: Lonner (1995): culture = common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group as well as shared values and attitudes Hofstede (2002): culture: “mental software” or cultural schemas that have been internalized to influence thinking, emotions and behavior

  37. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity e) cultural norms cont’d APPROACHES TO STUDYING CULTURE: Etic = universal behavior “rules” of human behavior that can be applied to all cultures around the world Emic = culture-specific behavior “rules” of human behavior that can only be applied to specific cultures STUDIES: Mead (1935): cultural variations in gender-specific behavior (ie. Sensitive vs aggressive behavior) Rashda Tabassum, et. al (2000) emics of depression and the Western etics used to evaluate and treat depression in ethic populations living within Western cultures.

  38. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity cont’d • Cultural dimensions: perspectives of a culture based on values and cultural norms • Understanding cultural dimensions helps facilitate communication between cultures. • 1) individualism = everyone looks after him/herself or immediate family • 2) collectivism = people are integrated into strong, cohesive “in-groups” which provides them with support and protection STUDIES: Hoefstede (1973): surveys about morale in 40 different cultures. Trends in answers he called “dimensions” Markus & Kitiyama (1991): “In America, the squeaky wheel gets the grease; in Japan, the nail that stand out gets pounded down.”

  39. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity f) cultural dimensions cont’d 3) uncertainty vs. avoidance * deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity * indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to either feel comfortable or uncomfortable in unstructured situations. * uncertainty-avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility by laws, rules, etc “there can only be one Truth and we have it” * long-term orientation = value persistence, loyalty and trustworthiness (Asian countries), relationships based on status, respect tradition * short-term orientation = value personal steadiness and stability, focus on the future and innovation is valued

  40. 2) Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural Norms cont’d • Social influence: 2) Conformity f) cultural dimensions cont’d 4) ecological fallacy * do not generalize two not always the same….or different 5) proxemic theory * culture’s need for “personal space” 6) time consciousness * varies according to culture monochronic = one thing at a time emphasis on scheduling, punctuality and meeting deadlines polychronic = many things happen at once focus on relationships and interactions. Interruptions are expected as a part of life

  41. Stereotypes may contribute to: Prejudice: An ATTITUDE of negative beliefs & feelings toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group A combination ofboth emotion & cognition Discrimination: A BEHAVIOR that is a negative action taken against an individual as a result of their group membership

  42. A) Biological research on origins of prejudice • Hart (2000), Phelps (2000) • Increased amygdala activity for different ethnicity • blk/wht, test scores, yearbook photos • Banaji & Greenwald (1998) • Good/bad, young/old • Ethnicity, religion, sexuality • Fiske (2007) • Insula activated in response to “disgusting” non-human objects (garbage, human waste) • Same response when shown pictures of homeless persons, etc (people different from themselves) • Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex – actives in response to “humans” and was NOT activated – viewed as NOT people

  43. A) Biological research on origins of prejudice • Evolution-based argument: • Protecting the gene pool of a community • Detecting a potential threat • Distinguish friends from enemies • Contribution from natural selection? • TODAY? • No Natural Selection

  44. B) Cognitive research on origins of prejudice • How do you think people would estimate the future of a child coming from either one or the other area? • Explain why it is so, arguing based on evidence. • What are the implications of this? • What could a member of society do to prevent the prejudice about poor children’s academic capacity becoming true?

  45. B) Cognitive research on origins of prejudice • Allport (1954) • Hostility is a key emotional component of prejudice • Influences of interpretation of behavior • Availability heuristic • Decisions based on information most readily available • (Tversky & Kahnemann (1982) Gypsies) • (Darley & Gross (1983) judgments based on where girl lived) • Schemas • Using shortcuts to simplify complex issues • Jane Elliott (1960s) • Blue eye/Brown eye classroom experiment

  46. C) Socio-cultural research on origins of prejudice • Sherif (1961) • Robber’s Cave Experiment a) Eagles & Rattlers b) Kept apart to gain cohesiveness c) Set up competition d) Created situations e) Caused hostility f) Mutual interdependence needed to break down barriers • Allport (1956) • Assembly without regard to race, color, religion, etc can destroy stereotypes • Amir (2000) • Prejudice strengthened or increased if competitive and unpleasant exchanges

  47. D) “Other” 1) Causes of prejudice a) Dissimilarity & social distance 1) in-group vs out-group b) Economic competition 1) timber-workers vs environmentalists (aka “tree-huggers”) c) Scapegoating 1) Blaming an innocent person for your troubles d) Conformity to social norms 1) Professions: secretary vs executive e) Media stereotypes 1) Examples

  48. Can the media reduce intergroup prejudice and conflict? To what extent do you think that psychology can be used to promote peaceful cooperation in the world?

  49. Problems combating prejudice: We avoid information that conflicts with our ideas of the world 2) Combating Prejudice May have strong emotional and motivational foundations. Sense of self-worth may be based on perceiving others as less worthy a) New role models 1) May serve to prevent rather than cure prejudice b) Equal status contact 1) Mere contact will not erase c) Legislation 1) Legislate morality?

  50. An interactionist approach to racism • Biological Factors • Response from the amygdala • Evolutionarily advantageous, to protect our genes from the out-group • Cognitive factors • Availability heuristics • The role of perception • Cognitive dissonance • Socio-cultural factors • Stereotyping (social cognition) • Fundamental attribution error • Contact hypothesis

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