Hinduism

1. Hinduism October 2012

3. Indian Civilization • The Indian Subcontinent is home to one of the oldest civilizations in the world • A wide diversity of religions exists on the Indian Subcontinent (modern Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka) • Four major religious traditions have emerged from this area: • Hinduism • Jainism • Buddhism • Sikhism

4. Hinduism • Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism are relatively unified religious traditions • Hinduism, by contrast, refers to a wide variety of religious traditions, philosophies, and folk practices, which may be only marginally related to each other • The term “Hinduism” was introduced by Europeans in the 18th century to describe followers of various Indian religions

5. History of Hinduism c. 8000-6000 BCE: the Vedas are “heard,” according to tradition c. 2500-1500 BCE: Indus Valley civilization flourishes in cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (modern-day Pakistan) c. 900-700 BCE: Brahmanas written c. 600-100 BCE: Upanishads written c. 400 BCE – 200 CE: Ramayana written c. 400 BCE – 400 CE: Mahabharata written

6. History of Hinduism 711 CE – Muslim invasions of India begin 1556-1707 – Mughal Empire 1857-1947 – British Raj 1947 – Independence, partition of India and Pakistan 1948 – Assassination of Mohandas Gandhi

7. The Vedas • The sacred texts of Hinduism are called Shruti, meaning “heard” • The Vedas are a collection of ancient religious hymns • Written in Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language • The earliest Vedas are among the oldest surviving religious texts in the world • According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas were not created by humans, but have existed eternally and were “heard” by ancient sages called rishis, and compiled by Vyasa, an incarnation of the god Vishnu • Contemporary scholars believe the Vedas were first written in the first millennium BCE, but were passed on orally prior to being written

8. The Vedas • There are four Vedas: • The Rig Veda: a book of sacred hymns • The Yajur Veda: a book of knowledge and melodies for the hymns • The Sama Veda: descriptions of the materials for sacrifice • The Atharva Veda: contains magic spells and other folk knowledge • The Vedas seem to have their origins in a herding-based society whose religious life centred around sacrificial fire rituals • Materials such as butter, food, and the sacred drink soma were sacrificed • The Vedas acknowledge a number of devas (gods), including the fire god Agni and the sky god Indra

9. Other Shruti Texts • Brahmanas – instructions on performing ritual sacrifice • Aranyakas – “forest treatises” written by hermits • Upanishads – philosophical texts elaborating on the Vedas

10. Philosophy of Hinduism • Although Vedic literature refers to several gods, it also acknowledges Brahman, the Infinite • Brahman the unseen reality that is the source of all existing things • Brahman is an unknowable reality, neither male nor female • Brahman is eternal; all material things (including humans) originate from Brahman and return to it (transcendent and immanent) • All deities are manifestations of Brahman • Different schools of Hinduism view Brahman in different ways, with some seeing it as having a personal nature and having (or being) consciousness, and others seeing it as being completely without characteristics

11. Don’t Get Confused! • The study of Hinduism requires learning a number of Sanskrit terms, some of which are similar but have distinct meanings. • Brahman = the Infinite • Brahmanas = Shruti texts on sacrifice • Brahma = a creator god • Brahmin = a priestly-caste Hindu

12. Brahman and Atman • The Atman is the inner essence of the human being – the soul • The Atman is the same as Brahman – a commonly-used analogy is the relationship between a drop of water and the ocean • The goal of some schools of Hinduism is for practitioners to realize that their individual consciousness is nothing but Brahman and to reunite with the Infinite

13. Other Concepts • Reincarnation: the belief that the atman migrates after death to a new body (human or other) • Karma: the law of cause and effect; good deeds lead to good results, and evil deeds lead to evil results. • This may follow the atman through death and affect reincarnation • Theistic schools may view karma as being divine judgement • Samsara: the cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation • Moksha: enlightenment; freedom from Samsara. One realizes the unity of atman and Brahman and is freed from the cycle of samsara, existing in a state of blissful union with Brahman

14. Common Themes in Hinduism • Most forms of Hinduism have the following in common: • Connection to Truth through the Vedas and other scriptures, and also through meditation and mystical experiences • Acceptance of the Vedas is the primary factor that distinguishes Hinduism from Buddhism and Jainism • Importance of ethics (karma) • Seeking of personal enlightenment through realization of the true nature of the Self

15. Philosophical Schools • Indian civilization has a long and rich philosophical tradition, much of which is closely related to religious belief • Samkhya: An ancient philosophical school based on dualism, which is the belief in two separate states of reality: the material world (Prakriti) and the eternal Self or cosmic consciousness (Purusha) • Advaita Vedanta: a monistic philosophy. Holds that everything is one (Brahman), and all differentiation in the world is illusion (maya)

16. Yoga • Yoga (Sanskrit meaning “to yoke,” a metaphor for “union”) refers to spiritual disciplines for attaining a state of samadhi: higher awareness, or union with the true Self • Systematized in the Yoga Sutras, developed by the sage Patanjali in the 3rd century BCE • Different types of yoga are appropriate for different types of people • Raja yoga: meditation • Includes chanting of mantras, breath control, channeling of prana energy, and moral living • Jnana yoga: rational questioning • Karma yoga: disinterested good deeds • Bhakti yoga: loving devotion to a personal deity

17. What about this kind of yoga? • The form of yoga most commonly practiced in the West derives from Hatha Yoga, a later form of yoga developed by Yogi Swatmarama in the 15th century CE

18. Bhakti • The way of bhakti, or devotion to a personal deity, became the most popular form of Hindu worship beginning around 600 CE • It was initially most popular among shudras (labourer-caste Hindus) and women • The majority of Hindus now practice bhakti • While there are many deities in Hinduism, three major groupings can be identified: • Shaktas • Shaivites • Vaishnavites

19. Shaktas • Shaktas are those who worship the feminine aspects of the divine in Hinduism • Shakti is the feminine, creative power associated with the divine • Devi (goddess) can be a generic term referring to any particular goddess or “the Goddess” in totality • Shaktas sometimes practice ways of worship based upon the Tantras, which are shruti scriptures separate from the Vedas

20. Devi • Devi has many aspects: • Durga is the goddess in her aspect as a warrior who conquers evil • Kali (pictured) is the goddess in her destroyer aspect • Lakshmi is the embodiment of wealth, fortune, and beauty • Saraswati is associated with the arts and knowledge

21. Some older traditions of Hinduism acknowledge three aspects of the Divine: • Brahma, the creator • Vishnu, the preserver • Shiva, the destroyer • Brahma is rarely the object of devotion • The other deities may be seen as representing the totality of the Divine

22. Shaivism • Shaivites are worshippers of Shiva • Shiva represents asceticism and the union of the masculine and the feminine • Shiva is sometimes depicted with a consort, either Parvati or Kali

23. The popular deity Ganesha, the remover of obstacles, is the son of Shiva and Parvati

24. Vaishnavites • Vaishnavites are worshippers of Vishnu • Vishnu is a merciful deity who appears in many incarnations (avatara) • One popular avatar of Vishnu is Krishna • Another is the hero Rama

25. The Epics • In Hindu mythology, Vishnu incarnates as an avatar at critical times in history to restore the moral order (dharma) • Two great epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, tell of Vishnu’s intervention in the world and conquest of evil forces

26. The Ramayana • The Ramayana, probablycomposed between 400 BCE and 200 CE, tells the story of the mythical prince Rama, identified as an avatar of Vishnu • The central theme of the Ramayana is dharma, the virtuous life, as exemplified in proper human relationships • Rama is banished from his kingdom by his stepmother. He goes willingly to live in the forest for fourteen years, accompanied by his wife, Sita • Sita is abducted by the demon king Ravana • Rama, his brother Lakshman, and the monkey king Hanuman fight a war against Ravana’s armies to retrieve Sita

27. The Mahabharata • The Mahabharata is a famous epic poem in Sanskrit, was probably composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE • It tells the story of an ancient dynastic struggle • One of the best-known parts of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita, or “Song of the Supreme Being” • In the Bhagavad-Gita, the prince Arjuna is forced to go to battle against his friends and loved ones • Distraught, he turns to his charioteer for advice • His charioteer, who is Krishna, gives Arjuna instruction on self-transcendence, dharma, and philosophy, which explain in detail many core beliefs in the Hindu tradition

28. “Do your duty to the best of your ability, O Arjuna, with your mind attached to the Lord, abandoning worry and selfish attachment to the results, and remaining calm in both success and failure. The selfless service is a yogic practice that brings peace and equanimity of mind.” - Bhagavad-Gita 2.48

29. Puranas • The Puranas are Sanskrit texts that narrate myths based on the Upanishads • Eighteen Puranas in total – six about Brahma, six about Vishnu, six about Shiva • Best known is Bhagavata Purana, which tells stories of Krishna, avatar of Vishnu • Strong emphasis on practice of bhakti – loving devotion to Krishna • Depicts Krishna as a mischievous child • Also depicts Krishna as a young man dancing with gopis (young, female cow-herders)

31. Ritual Life • Many rituals make up Hindu religious life • Puja is Hindu worship • Sometimes takes place at temples; may be connected by specialists such as brahmin priests • May also take place at home shrines • Statues of deities are often the focal point of ritual; these are treated as if they were the actual deity

32. Caste • Over the course of history, Hindu society came to be divided into four castes, or social classes: • Brahmins: priests, the highest caste • Kshatriyas: warriors and kings • Vaishyas: merchants • Shudras: manual labourers • Some people do not fall into any caste; these are called dalits, or untouchables • Dalits have traditionally been tasked with work such as cleaning streets and working with human and animal corpses and waste • Caste-based discrimination is now illegal in India, and affirmative-action policies aim to improve standards of living in lower castes, but inequalities persist

33. Four Goals of Life • Hinduism defines for objectives, or “ends,” of the good life: • Dharma: carrying out duties and responsibilities • Artha: pursuit of worldly success and wealth • Kama: love, sensual pleasure, and art • Moksha: enlightenment • Different goals are considered appropriate for different people

34. The Life Cycle • The journey towards enlightenment is thought to take many lifetimes • Being born as a human, especially an upper-caste male, is thought to be a unique opportunity for spiritual development • Brahmin males are ideally expected to pass through four stages of life: • Student • Householder • Spiritual seeker • Ascetic

35. Women in Hinduism • The place of women in Hinduism has a complex history • Hindu tradition prescribes clear social roles for all members of society, including women • These social roles often involve marriage and family life • While domestic roles are honoured in Hindu tradition, in practice they often lead to limited social status for women • Expectations of a large dowry being given to the husband’s family at marriage have led to women being seen as an economic burden in some families • Arranged marriages are a Hindu tradition that is sometimes still practiced today • Women are not traditionally expected to pursue spiritual enlightenment, although many women become ascetics

36. Hinduism Today • Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), called “Mahatma” (“Great Soul”), drew upon Hindu symbolism in his campaign of non-violent resistance to British rule • Ramakrishna (1836-1886), a Hindu spiritual leader and mystic, emphasized the universalist elements in Hinduism – the idea that there are many paths to the same goal of spiritual enlightenment, including the paths of Christianity and Islam • Ramakrishna’s disciple Vivekananda (1863-1902) travelled the world, spreading Ramakrishna’s version of Hinduism

38. Global Hinduism • Hinduism is the third-largest religion in the world today, with over a billion adherents • Outside of India, significant Hindu populations exist in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and parts of Indonesia and Malaysia, as well as in diaspora communities in Canada and other Western countries • Some gurus (teachers) have developed popular movements which adapt Hindu devotion to the contemporary West, bringing Hinduism beyond its traditional cultural context • The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (popularly known as Hare Krishnas), a bhakti movement introduced to the West in 1965, remains popular worldwide • The Transcendental Meditation movement, developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, adapts traditional Hindu meditation to bring inner and global peace

39. Hinduism in India • Contemporary India is a deeply pluralistic society, and its constitution establishes it as a secular society • Nevertheless, some Indians insist that India is a Hindu nation, and have formed Hindu nationalist political parties • The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 led to violence between Hindus and Muslims on a large scale, leading to a succession of wars between India and Pakistan • Inter-religious tension persists in modern India, sometimes resulting in outbursts of violence perpetrated by religious extremists

40. Hinduism Today • Such challenges in India illustrate the necessity of religious coexistence in a pluralistic world • The Supreme Court of India’s definition of Hinduism emphasizes its universalism and adaptability to changing situations. According to this definition, Hinduism entails: • Acceptance and reverence for the Vedas as the foundation of Hindu philosophy; • A spirit of tolerance, and willingness to understand and appreciate others’ points of view, recognizing that truth has many sides • Acceptance of the belief that vast cosmic periods of creation, maintenance, and dissolution continuously recur • Acceptance of belief in reincarnation • Recognition that paths to truth and salvation are many • Recognition that there may be numerous gods and goddesses to worship, without necessarily believing in worship through idols • Unlike other religions, absence of belief in a specific set of philosophic concepts

41. For Next Week • Read Chapter 4: Jainism