Lies and Happiness Psychological Research (Stotler, 2016)

1. Running head: LIES AND HAPPINESS RESEARCH REPORT 1 Research Proposal: The relationship between lies and happiness Jacob R. Stotler / Group№ 6 Laramie County Community College

2. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 2 Abstract This study was focused on finding the existence of a positive correlation between college age individual’s thoughts on telling lies, and the power they believe to have of their own happiness. The study was conducted on a college campus in Northern Kansas, Cloud County Community College in Cloud County. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected that self-empowered happiness is not correlated with telling lies. Keywords: lying, happiness, correlational, research

3. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 3 Research Report: The Truth of Lies and Happiness Introduction This report concludes that College aged students do not regularly use or recognize the sociological path of lying and the path to happiness, even in the “heat of the moment”. Happiness is defined in the Oxford dictionary as “an instance or cause of good fortune, and contentment with one’s circumstances” (“Happiness”, 2016). Contentment is how people describe the comparison of their life to how one believes it should be (Veenhoven, 1991). Lying was defined with support from the Oxford Encyclopedia: “a statement that the producer believes to be false and still it is told to others to trust it as accuracy” (Gregory, 2006). Lying is a well-researched element of society from many backgrounds of experience and expertise, though sometimes, “receives little attention”, in everyday life (Simpson, 1992, p. 623). Method Research Hypothesis: If happiness is related to lying, then there will be a positive relationship between self- reports of self-empowered happiness and the frequency of lying. Literature Review The study was designed to examine the relationship between happiness and lying. “In deceiving, it is the effect that counts” (Demos, 1960, p.588). The study was also designed to capture the snapshot of the opinions; the participants were told, to “answer as fast as you can”. The reasons for the chosen applications of our study, came from the following supports throughout our research. “It is thought that when people do believe in the right to lie, they had not believed this same inclination the moment before” (Lee, 2003, p.98) this supports the basis for the research study. Participants taking part in a study in a naturalistic environment may

4. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 4 actually contribute the most scandid measure of the variables than that of lab studies (Shore, 2008, p.7 In a study Eisenhardt & Bourgeosis, 1988, it was thought that politics slowed quick decisions. To integrate this idea, the group took measures by using only four straight forward questions. It is also important to reflect in this research that within deeper applications of these same ideas, “Snitch testimonies”, are ruled as permissible evidence in court. Even without viable lie detector tests, the statements of some criminals can/ have imprisoned others. Snitch testimonies offer criminals compensation for exploiting other potential criminals by the means of testifying against them for a lesser sentence (Harris, 2000). These testimonies could lead some people to believe that lying could benefit them in their circumstances, both long term and through the potential dishonesty of deceiving in only one quick instance. According to arguments made by L. Saxe, in an online interview, “lie detector tests are more myth than reality” (American Psychological Association [APA], 2004, p.1). The seriousness to study these variables could contain essentials to modern day society. Another factor that uses the correlation between these two variables is that that people tend to believe, or in actuality are rewarded more often, when they lie (Jenson, 2003, p.379). A study performed by Leonard Saxe in 1991 reached the conclusion involving deception that, “to provide theory and find the practical significance of lying, studies should focus on the reasons people lie.” (Saxe, 1991, p. 71). Although this study focuses on only one possible “motivator” to lie, the possible correlation would have exhibited the reasoning to study these two elements further.

5. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 5 Although lying is a signifying characteristic of antisocial behavior, happiness and lying are both characteristics prominent in human interaction (Giacalone & Greenberg, 1997). One of the essential justifications of this study includes the fact that when people lie, there is no standardized reasoning why or to what degree of legitimacy the untruth may represent. “Some people consider lying deception and others recognize telling lies as being secrets” (Gicalone & Greenburg, 1997, p. 69). It is known that some people may believe that lying is moral and may lie when it benefits them (Giacalone & Greenberg, 1997). It seemed to have been a genuine possibility that one element giving people a reason to lie, is happiness alone, strictly because of the need to feel advantaged. (Alder, 1927). Method Operational Definitions It has been shown that questionnaires are valid forms of measuring happiness (Khalek Ahmed, 2006). The design of our study that targeted the truth we have obtained, measured one form of honesty within all of the participants. The design we had invented was to place a pair of “questions” in the study that were equivalent questions, to all degrees. Essentially, the statements were different only through reverse verbatim. Overall there should have been no deviation or opposing opinions between these two questions, No. 2 and No. 4. Power within the individuals own happiness was measured by their response to a Likert scale rating of 1-10 (in agreeableness), if they believed that they are personally, “the power behind their own happiness”. Aptness of lying was measured by a Likert scale 1-10 rating (of agreeableness) that the participant “I have lied for a certain outcome”, (Question No. 3, see

6. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 6 Appendix B.) The measurements of the correlation come from the answers that are provided by the participants on a Likert type rating scale with a correlation coefficient as the base statistic. Null hypothesis: H0: The null hypothesis stated that there is no relationship between lying (as measured by Question No. 3, Appendix B) and happiness (as measured by question No. 1, see Appendix B). The Pearson Correlational coefficient: rvalue = 0. Participant selection Participants were selected by the process of convenience sampling at a busy location on a Community College in North Central Kansas (CCCC). The overall instigation of our research was to study these relevant variables as they are apposite characteristics to characteristics involved in: snitch testimony, false testimony, problems in the work environment, and problems in civil /military communications (Giacalone & Greenberg, J.,1997). It is known that some career paths involve lying as an element of contrivance, such as Journalists, Police, (Lee, 2004) and even lawyers have claimed to have lied on the job (Meadow, 1990). Prior to any field experience, scholars may have shown signs of these same “psychological strategies” towards success (Meadow, 1990). Research Design Correlation Coefficient Statistic: To determine any positive relationship between number No. 3 (I have told lies or not), and No. 1, (I am the power behind my own happiness) the data is examined using the correlational statistic and r-value. Procedure

7. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 7 The design sampled 50 college students. Subjects were asked to sign a consent form and then given the questionnaire, while urged to rate the statements on a Likert scale (1-10) of agreeability as quickly as possible. This entire process per individual did not last more than five minutes. The goals were met and all participants yielded data, signifying the opinions of college scholars. Results Interpretation of Data We fail to reject the null hypothesis that there is no correlation between self-autonomous happiness lying for certain outcomes. The degrees of freedom in this report and study was 47. There was one participant’s answers that were removed from the total sample because of void results (failed to answer the survey). The calculated value of the correlation coefficient was .0388 r value. The calculated p value measuring correlation between these two variables was .79125. This value is a statistically insignificant p value. (“Social Science Stats”, 2016). The low r value, indicates that there is no meaningful correlation between these two variables list the variables (Clarke, 1969;(Gravetter, Forzano, 2015). The insignificant value of the p-value does not give us the means to reject the null hypothesis. The insignificant correlation between these variables can be recognized also by the scatterplot located in Appendix C (p. 15, Fig. 16.01). Discussion Research Hypothesis If happiness is related to lying, then there will be a positive relationship between self- reports of autonomous happiness and the frequency of lying.

8. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 8 There was no direction of correlation; the hypothesis was unsupported due to the results of a very weak correlation between these two variables. Relevance This particular research study may be supportive to other studies; this study has measured College aged individuals to be more honest, as well as to feel more empowered to towards their own happiness. This research has ruled out happiness, as one direct inspiration to lie. The group had also found within this research, that it is well known, that when people knowingly lie, it is often to be rewarded (Jensen, 2003), to keep the peace (Bok, 2004), or to take advantage of the moment (Lee, 1999). Relevance may steer further research on to other possible variables of correlation, between lying and civility. Confounds There were few confounds in the production of this study. Some confounds were recorded. One of the most notable variables that were found, were that within the Likert scale rating system of “circle the rate on which you agree, from 1-10”, almost all of the 50 participants chose a different pattern of recording their answer. Some of the individuals circled the spacer between the numbers, some participants used the spacers as a “connect the dots”, or as a game to be skilled at, and others seemed to be confused about how to properly circle the number in which they intended to record. I.e. the Likert scale could/should have followed the standard testing method of “fill in the dots”. Another confound was perhaps that the classification of participants was not recorded by any organized means. Males, females, rich, poor, athletic, un-athletic, civilian, military; all of these are potential confounds or variables that were not recorded.

9. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 9 The data was collected on a “normal” school day, the temperature was a steady, approximate 70F with no fans, machines, music or auditory or visual distractions. There were no sudden floods or changes in populations at any time. There were no other physical confounds that obviously effected the study. Another likely reason the experiment gave these results was because the measurements were completely void and inaccurate, furthermore lying could have taken place, and also the entire process could have been null and ineffective. Implications and Future Studies There could be many other studies for the benefit of Psychology, professionalism and law based on the variables of happiness and lying. This is especially true towards the potential evolution of a reliable lie detector test. There must be further research and/or interest of how lying and civility are or could be correlated. Another report of the composition of this same study would be an asset to the research, essentially to find a measure of deviation (if any) from these results. This study could be recorded on other campuses, or other schools to analyze how the location and social class of the study may affect the results. The other potential efforts that could be applied to this study, are to record the ages, races, sexes, and/or other individualized variables such as career aspirations. Adding just one of these variables per measurement of a sample, could be informative to researchers on what information affects the truth, the truth told, or directly affects the answers given. Other factors such as location, the surroundings or circumstances going on near the study, and/or even the length of the survey could all be variables that would proliferate findings or unforeseen correlations. This is a timeless subject, that will always be a matter of civility, wealth and humanity.

10. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 10 References Alder, A. (1927). Understanding human nature. Oxford, England :Greenburg. APA. (2004). The truth about lie detectors (aka polygraph tests). American Psychological Association. Retrieved December 2 , 2016 from www.apa.org. Bok, S. (1999). Lying: Moral choice in public and private life. Vintage Books, New York. Demos, R. (1960). Lying to oneself. The Journal of Philosophy, 57(18),588-595. Eisenhardt, K. & Bourgeosis, L. (1988). Politics of strategic decision making in high velocity environments: Toward a midrange theory. Academy of Management Journal, 31,737-770. Giacalone, R.A., Greenberg, J. (1997). Antisocial behavior in organizations. Sage publications, Inc.,70-74 Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2015). Correlational statistics, r value. Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences (5th ed.), 347-365. Stanford CT, Cengage learning. Harris, G.C. (2000). Testimony for sale: the law and ethics of snitches and experts, rev. 1 Web Pepperdine University, School of Law, Rev.1, p. 1. Web, accessed November 24, 2016 from http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/pepplr28&div=8&id=&pa ge= . Jenson, M. (2003). Paying people to lie: the truth about the budgeting process. European financial management, Vol. 9, Sept. 2003. 379-406. Web journal accessed November 28, 2016 from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-036X.00226/abstract . Khalek, Abdel, Ahmed, M. (2006). Measuring happiness with a single-item scale. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, Vol. 34, Number 2, 2006. 139-150 (12). Web journal, accessed November 25, 2016.

11. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 11 Lee, S.T. (2004). Lying to tell the truth: journalists and the Social Context of Deception. Mass communication and society, Vol. 7, November 17, 2009. 97-120. Accessed December 10, 2016 from www.tandfonline.com . Meadow, C.M. (1990). Lying to clients for Economic Gain or Paternalistic Judgement: a Proposal for a Golden Rule of Candor. University of Pennsylvania law review, Vol. 138, No.3 (Jan.1990), pp. 761-783. Web Journal accessed November 28, 2016 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3312266?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents . Happiness. (2016). In Oxford University Press. Retrieved November 23, 2016 from http://proxy.lccc.wy.edu:2258/view/Entry/84070?redirectedFrom=happiness#contentWra pper . Saxe, L. (1991). Lying: thoughts of an applied social psychologist. American psychologist Vol. 46(4), April 1991. 409-415. Web, journal article accessed November 23, 2016 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.409 . Shore, Z. (2008). Blunder1-7. Bloomsberg USA, New York,1-7. - Simpson, D. (1992). Lying, Liars and Language. Philosophy and phenomenological research, Vol. II, No. 3, September 1992. 623-639. Web article, accessed November 25, 2016 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2108211?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents . Veenhoven, R. (1990). Is happiness relative? Social indicators research,Feb. 1991,Vol. 24. 1- 34. Web article, retrieved November 25, 2016 from http://link.springer.com

12. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 12 APPENDIX A: Informed Consent Form PARTICIPATION CONSENT FORM LCCC OVERVIEW The author of this study attends Laramie County Community College and focuses in the major of Psychology in Cheyenne Wyoming. This research method is designed to represent college aged individuals. Feedback is welcome on the last page of the questionnaire. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES Each participant will be given a short data based survey. Results and a debriefing statement of events can be found by emailing a request to junestotler@yahoo.com. (Please allow 2-3 weeks of processing time for reply). CONFIDENTIALITY All research will be kept confidential with researchers, authors and those presented with the data at any time. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION I as a participant knowingly endorse this agreement with recognition that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to leave the experiment at any time. QUESTIONS and FURTHER INFORMATION Contact information is available here for any questions or concerns regarding the study. (RESEARCHER PRESENT) Jacob Stotler (615) 483-4317 junestotler@yahoo.com (PROFESSOR) Doctor J. Sanford Office at Laramie County Community College (307) 778-1124 SIGNATURE

13. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 13 I AGREE TO THE TERMS ABOVE AND HOLD MYSELF ENTIRELY RESPONSIBLE THROUGHOUT AND DURING THIS SHORT QUESTIONNARE. PRINT SIGN WITNESS (RESEARCHER)

14. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 14 Appendix B: Survey PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS (2000-500) TIME: Please answer all of the questions as quick as you can. On a scale of 1-10, where 1= Not at all true for me 10= Absolutely true for me (Circle the number that best describes you) 1.) I am the power behind my own happiness. 2.) There are more opportunities available for dishonest people than there are for me. 3.) I have often told lies for a certain outcome. 4.) Honest people have less opportunities than dishonest people.

15. RESEARCH REPORT LIES AND HAPPINESS 15 Appendix C: Correlation Coefficient Fig.16.01 (Scatterplot) Fig.16.02 (Area Graph)