Psychological Research Methods and Statistics

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Thanks, Bill, but that is definitely NOT the correct way to do psychological research. With that point in mind, we are going to learn about how psychologists conduct research. Many of you may have learned some of the information I will now present in other classes. You still need to pay attention. HOOAH!!!

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics And, my big brother, will now review two examples of studies he placed on his website last summer as models of how he wanted your projects done. The Attention Span Experiment A more sophisticated attention span experiment Now linked to website: http://psimonciniohs.net/APPsych

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Having made the previous point, let’s now look at general research techniques. Thanks, Abby. We are going to continue to discuss the scientific method. Many of you may have learned some of the information I will present in other classes. You still need to pay attention. HOOAH!!!

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Hello. I am a typical scientist. Can anyone tell me what psychologists seek to do—you know, what are the goals of psychology? From my observations, I would describe Simoncini as old, bald and cantankerous. We psychologists predict what people will think or feel in various situations. So, if Simoncini does not get therapy, he may go off the deep end and dye what is left of his hair blonde. I need to control his behavior in helpful ways; so I will advise him to get cognitive behavioral therapy and accept his middle age woes. He is cantankerous because he is old, bald and ugly. Describe Explain Predict Influence

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics In doing their jobs, to ensure accuracy, psychologists use the scientific method. Question A hypothesis is an educated guess. It is a researcher’s prediction about the expected results of a study. Hypothesis A theory is usually a complex explanation based on findings from many experiments. Controlled test Gather data Theory Analyze results

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics The first type of research we shall discuss is the experiment. • The experiment is the most • powerful analytic tool used in • science. • Cause-and-effect relation- • ships can be established • only through the use of well- • controlled experiments. • Remember, most researchers • begin by doing background • reading.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics The first term I want you to explain is “operational definitions.” Operational definitions are specific descriptions of concepts involving the conditions of a scientific study. Operational definitions are stated in terms of how the concepts are to be measured or what operations are being employed to produce them. Precise operational definitions are requirements for psychological experiments.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics We shall now discuss variables. What are they? Conditions and behaviors that are subject to change. Independent Variable Experimenters manipulate so they can observe its effects. Dependent Variable The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics To ensure you understand operational definitions and variables, let’s do an in-class exercise. What is the operational definition of the dependent variable? A researcher compared the effectiveness of massed versus distributed practice in preparing for a memory test. Each of two groups memorized the definitions of 40 vocabulary words. In group A, there were 30 participants who were all under 25 years of age. Participants in group A used the method of distributed practice, studying for 30 minutes on each of four evenings. They were tested on the 5th morning at 7:00 A.M. In group B, there were 30 participants who were all over 60 years of age. Participants in group B used the method of massed practice, studying only from 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M. on the evening before the test. They were tested the next morning at 7:00 A.M. All participants completed a recall test. The test measured how quickly participants recalled the definitions. The results showed that the mean difference between the distributed practice group and the massed practice group was statistically significant. The researcher provided a list of the names and test scores for each individual participant in a letter to all participants.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics The operational definitions of the dependent variable were a combination of “speed and accuracy.” As a follow-on question, what words in the scenario indicate that the study conducted was an experiment? A researcher compared the effectiveness of massed versus distributed practice in preparing for a memory test. Each of two groups memorized the definitions of 40 vocabulary words. In group A, there were 30 participants who were all under 25 years of age. Participants in group A used the method of distributed practice, studying for 30 minutes on each of four evenings. They were tested on the 5th morning at 7:00 A.M. In group B, there were 30 participants who were all over 60 years of age. Participants in group B used the method of massed practice, studying only from 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M. on the evening before the test. They were tested the next morning at 7:00 A.M. All participants completed a recall test. The test measured how quickly participants recalled the definitions. The results showed that the mean difference between the distributed practice group and the massed practice group was statistically significant. The researcher provided a list of the names and test scores for each individual participant in a letter to all participants. A researcher compared the effectiveness of massed versus distributed practice in preparing for a memory test. Each of two groups memorized the definitions of 40 vocabulary words. In group A, there were 30 participants who were all under 25 years of age. Participants in group A used the method of distributed practice, studying for 30 minutes on each of four evenings. They were tested on the 5th morning at 7:00 A.M. In group B, there were 30 participants who were all over 60 years of age. Participants in group B used the method of massed practice, studying only from 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M. on the evening before the test. They were tested the next morning at 7:00 A.M. All participants completed a recall test. The test measured how quickly participants recalled the definitions. The results showed that the mean difference between the distributed practice group and the massed practice group was statistically significant. The researcher provided a list of the names and test scores for each individual participant in a letter to all participants. Cause Effect

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Here are examples of independent and dependent variables that I used in the previously-discussed psychology experiment I did back when I had this goatee. The attention experiment Independent variable: the television Experimental group: on Control group: off Dependent variable: the outcome of the experiment—how each group did on the test (operational definition)

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Control group Experimental group Not exposed to the independent variable Exposed to the inde-pendent variable. Necessary in all experiments Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Designing Psychological experiments Basic inquiry (Question)—background reading Hypothesis Establish variables Independent, dependent, extraneous Extraneous (confounding): anything that differs between the control & experimental group besides the independent variable Ensure you have controls Select your samples Begin the experiment

Standard Line Comparison Lines Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Solomon Asch’s Experiment Conformity Experiment Subject asked to match one of three lines to a “standard line;” the answer was obvious

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Boys NBG BG

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Experiments • Advantages: • They may establish cause-and-effect relationships • They emphasize the operationalization of variables; the active manipulation of the independent variable; or the accurate measurement of the dependent variable • They stress the control of variables or the random assignment of participants to the group studied • They allow for blind or double-blind procedures • They can be replicated Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Experiments • Disadvantages: • They reduce external validity—they can be artificial or contrived • It may be difficult to establish adequate control conditions or eliminate confounding variables • There is a statistical possibility of bias despite the use of appropriate procedures Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Disclaimer: note most “blondes” in the below photo are, in reality, fake blondes. Samples Test a relatively small group of the population. “What do Mustang J. V. cheerleaders think about. . .” Representative— avoid bias Note: random sampling means that all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected Deliberate selection Random selection Sample only blondes Every third cheerleader

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics The group being sampled is referred to as the sample.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Correlational Studies Relationship between two sets of observations (or variables). Correlation Republican/Democrat = politicians

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Correlational Studies Determining the relationship between two variables Data can have a positive correlation, a negative correlation or no correlation (more later in chapter) Example: researchers, through a scientific study, find that there is a significant, positive correlation between the amount of daily aerobic exercise students get and their grades. What is a justifiable conclusion they can draw from that data? Conclusion: students who earn good grades tend to get more aerobic exercise than those who do not. Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Correlational Studies • Advantages: • They examine, test, reveal, compare, or describe a relationship between two variables • They can be efficient, allow the researcher to collect substantial data, or save time and money • They provide a way to make predictions about the variables • They can be used to dispel illusory correlations • They can utilize preexisting or archival data (participants may not be needed Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Correlational Studies • Disadvantages: • They cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships or the direction of causal influence • They are prone to inaccurate reporting (e. g. on surveys) • They make it hard to asses the impact of additional variables • They do not allow for the active manipulation of variables Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Surveys Most practical way to gather data on the attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of large numbers of people. Interviews, questionnaires, combination

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Surveys Question: What is the best technique for teaching high school students? Hypothesis: Simoncini’s technique is the best Questionnaire 10-20 respondents Demographic section Proof questions section

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Questionnaire Demographics Gender: Male Female Age/year in school: 9 10 11 12 Ethnic background: Latino, Afr. Am, Cauc, Asian, Other Classes taught by Simoncini: 1 2 3 Cum. GPA <2.0 2.0-3.0 3.1-4.0 >4.0 Simoncini’s teaching method is boring. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Simoncini truly cares about his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the courses he teaches. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree Simoncini has no control over his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Naturalistic Observation Circumstances in which the subjects of the experiment are not conscious that they are part of an experiment. Naturalistic observations have far fewer controlled conditions. Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Here is a homework project. • Engage in a naturalistic observation • activity. • 2. Spend 15-30 minutes in some type • of eating venue (cafeteria, fast food • restaurant, fancy eatery, or family meal.) • 3. Be as unobtrusive as possible. • 4. Record the various types of behavior demonstrated by the people you observe.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Aloha! Before we go over Question 14, we need to discuss a term not in the textbook. Case study A case study is a descriptive, exploratory or explanatory analysis of a person, group or event. An explanatory case study is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Case studies may be prospective (in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available) or retrospective (in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study). Question 14 pertains to different types of case studies.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Here is some more information on the case study. Case study • Advantages • Provide in-depth, detailed information about the case, person, or functional unit of persons being studied • Provide an opportunity to study unusual cases • Disadvantages • Results cannot be generalized (case specificity) • Prone to inaccurate reporting from whatever source the data are gathered • Can be lengthy and expensive.

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Longitudinal studies Study the same group at regular intervals over a period of years to determine if their behavior or feelings have changed and, if so, how. Example: study the 2015 Oakdale Distinguished Young Women contestants every 2 years until 2035 to determine if the friendships they made have continued. Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Longitudinal studies Advantages: study the same group throughout the study. Example: Newcomb’s Bennington College study. Disadvantages: Lengthy and costly Participants who drop out during the course of the study may be different in important ways from the ones who do not drop out. Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Cross-Sectional Studies People are organized into groups that are cross-sections of the population. Then the groups are randomly sampled and the members of each group are surveyed, tested, or observed simultaneously. Less accurate than longitudinal studies. Example: age cross-sections Middle-Aged Young Adults Teenagers Elderly

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Cohort-sequential study—better data Take across section of the population, then follow each cohort or groupfor a short period. Less susceptible to bias; more accurate data Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics All right! So you boneheads think you know the types of psychological research. Let’s do a little quiz for fun to see how much you know. Consider the following list. Case histories; naturalistic observations; laboratory observations; surveys; tests; correlational studies; and experiments.Match the correct one to each of the following.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Here they are again. Case histories; naturalistic observations; laboratory observations; surveys; tests; correlational studies; and experiments. Determining why a housewife gave up a flourishing career Determining whether a person is introverted or extroverted Determining if frustration causes aggression Determining if level of education is associated with crime Determining the behavior of subjects who are anxious about participating in research Determining the favorite food of adolescents Determining how teenagers behave on their first dates

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Personal Bias A person’s beliefs, preferences, assumptions or prejudices Often not obvious to the individual (Robert Guthrie’s Even the Rat was White) Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics There are always potential pitfalls in research—pitfalls that you must try to avoid. Expectancy Bias also known as self-fulfilling prophecies Sometimes yourexpectationsabout the results of an experiment areso great, that you might inadvertently do things thatskew the results.

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Two types of experimentsused to avoid self-fulfilling prophesiesare single-blind and double blind experiments. Single-blind: participants are unaware of whichparticipants received the treatment and which ones received the placebo. Double-blind: neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received the treatment. Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics No problem, Julianne! We professors like serious students. Here is the Ethics Cascade 1. Who should decide what is morally justifiable in the conduct of research? 2. Are controlled research studies ever necessary or appropriate? 3. Should all research have a foreseeable practical benefit? 4. At whom should research be directed? 5. What specific topics are worthy of research? 6. What particular research metho- dologies are scientifically valid, as well as ethically appropriate? 7. Of the valid methods, which should be used?

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Here are some additional important ethics guidelines not found in the textbook but specified by the American Psychological Association. • Participation in a research study • must be voluntary • Research may involve deception; • however, people deceived must • be debriefed at the conclusion of • the study • Participants must be informed of • potential risks • Participants must be offered • alternative activities if research • participation is a course • requirement • Participants’ right to privacy must be protected

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Earlier we did an in-class exercise in which we responded to one part of one of the two essay prompts on the 2013 national test. To reinforce what we have learned thus far let’s now do an in-class exercise responding to the remaining parts of that prompt.

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Having completed that exercise in groups, I’ll now pass out another one that is a—oh noooooo—homework assignment. It was one of the two essay prompts on the 2014 national test.

Social Psychology Theodore Newcomb and the Bennington College experiment Can norms of a liberal campus have a greater influence than family traditions and attitudes? Yes Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Operational Definitions By reading the question’s or statement’s wording one knows what various terms mean within the context of the study Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the courses he teaches. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree Simoncini has no control over his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Sure Disagree

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Hey, I’m a math nerd, so I love this next part. We shall now discuss statistics. Frequency Distribution Way of arranging data so we know how often a particular score or observation occurs. One way to depict data: a histogram

Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Central Tendency Describes something about the average score. Mode Most frequent score Can be skewed: Median Middle score A few extreme scores can have a disproportionate effect—pulls mean toward the extreme score Mean Sum of all scores divided by total number of scores M = X / N 4 + 8 + 5 + 10 + 2 + 9 = 38/6=6.33

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics Measures of variance (variability) Provide an index of how spread out the scores of a distribution are. Range Subtract lowest score from the highest score—simplest measure of variance Objective: Students will explain the key aspects of psychological research

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics