What Do Children Want? A Conceptualization of Evolutionary Influences on Children’s Motivation in the Peer Group

1. What Do Children Want? A Conceptualization of Evolutionary Influences on Children’s Motivation in the Peer Group Kevin MacDonald International Journal of Behavioral Development 19(1) 53-73 Jennifer Traver Ann Dorlet Luky Pongquan

2. A Look at Previous Research • Peer Relationships fall within a continuum based on • Resources

3. The Resource Continuum • Relationships of Dominance and Subordination • Exploitation • Friendships • Voluntary Symmetrical relationships • Based Reciprocity • Neither Party defects • Shared Resources • I.e. Emotional Guidance • High levels of Commonality or Interests • Individuals choose friends who lie in this part of the continuum • Not voluntary • Relationships are prone to defection • Asymmetrical relationships • Individuals rarely benefit • Conflict of interest • I.e. bullying • Voluntary • Occur in Natural Groups • Uneven access to Resources Among Group • Basic Principles of Social Organization

4. Friendships • Based on Reciprocity and Similarity • Resources are being shared by both Individuals • I.e. companionship, sharing advice, valued • possessions • Past research by Asher and Williams found that mostly likely friendships would occur with individuals who are similar to each other • “Reciprocity and Equality” are the Hallmarks of Friendship

5. How Can You Tell If Friendships will be Reciprocated? Hey, You’re Just as Good Lookin’ as me, I’ll be your friend! • Phenotypically • I.e. if physical attractiveness is a resources then children who are similar in physical attractiveness will more likely be friends • Interests and Abilities • I.e. if individuals share the same interests and abilities they are more likely to be friends because individuals can obtain resources from one another

6. Macdonald Looked at the Evolved Systems that Influenced the Resource Value • Social Status plays into the Resource Value • Popular Children have good assets • Unpopular children come as liabilities

7. Popular kids have the most positive high net value Become leaders Set the norms Physically attractive Most of them excel in academia and or athletic abilities Prosocial Interaction Unpopular kids tend to be liabilities on other peer groups I.e. Most unpopular boys tend to be highly aggressive, hyperactive, and disruptive Popular Vs. Unpopular

8. Three biological systems that appear to be assets or liabilities in peer relationships • Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity • Functional system • Resources include sociability, curiosity, exploration of the environment, and creativity • There traits are associated with interests in and responsiveness to the environment • This is important in the aspect of play where individuals are honing down on learning social skills • This system makes child seek contact with the environment and at moderate levels becomes part of learning device • Developmentally this declines during adulthood (i.e. decline in risk taking and sensation, attention focuses possible sources of threat)

9. Biological Systems Continued • Example of Sensation/Impulsivity children are ADHD children • They are highly impulsive and seek simulating environments • This children are known to be highly rejected by other children • As a result being extreme in this trait of Sensation seeking and impulsivity is not viewed as an asset by other children so not a resource to other peers

10. Biological Systems Continued • Behavioral Inhibition System • Functional System • System that responds to behavioral threats with behavioral inhibition • Children who are dominated by this system are withdrawn and shy leading to social neglect • This is not a resource for other peers and becomes a liability  these children become less mature, less assertive and more complaint

11. Biological Systems Continued • Human Affectional System • Non Functional System because develops out of relationships • Resources include attachment, intimate relationships, help to shape high investment in parenting, help to form close friendships later in life (highly rewarding), empathy, nurturance, and prosocial behavior • It has no adaptive function during childhood but helps to develop pair bonding in the future so it comes as a elementary form of behavior

12. Biological Systems Continued • The attached child is relatively empathetic and altruistic with friendships because feelings of support, affection, commitment, and cooperation are reciprocated • Helps ensure appropriate mate choice, increase paternal investment and cement family ties

13. Conclusion • Macdonald proposes that popular children have high net value or asset value due to moderate levels of impulsivity, moderate levels of behavioral inhibition, and moderate levels of the human affectional system • Overinhibited children are seen as liabilities to other children and are therefore rejected

14. Critical Reviews • Although he brings up a different perspective on how to view the resource value, he doesn’t explain the degree of impulsivity, behavioral inhibition, and the human affectional system • How much is too much? Or too little? • Phenotype can be subjective