Fundamentals of Computer Processing

1. Fundamentals of Computer Processing

2. Some Basic Terms • Bit – a single unit of information, generally in the form of a 1 or 0, when combined with other bits they can make up words or code in which the computer can understand and process. The name bit comes from the derivation of Binary and unIT, • Byte – a combination of 8 bits, one byte is the length of one character (ex. 10010010) • Binary System –a combination of 1’s and 0’s in order to produce numbers, letters, symbols, and words. These letters and symbols are translated by the computer in the form of ASCII and ECBDIC code. • bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, referred to in terms of the rate of data transfer. Can be known as bauds per second or bits per second, the K, M, G, refer to the metric system of kilo, mega, and gig which translates into 1000, 1,000,000, or 1,000,000,000 bits per second, as one could surmise the larger the number the faster the actual transmission of data that occurs • Megahertz (MHz) a measure of clock speed, or the pacing of a events in a computer; represents 1 million cycles per second; also known as a unit of frequency in this case 1 million hertz • Latency – the number of bits (frames, cells, packets) in transit; a figure that tells us how quickly a given bit a data will move from one point to another within a network, usually equated to delay

3. Some Basic Terminology • Delay – the dominant time interval of the transmission of information, also referred to as the time it takes to send a message from point A to the time it is received at destination point D. Delay is broken down into propagation and transmission delay. • Frequency– number of vibrations per unit time; number of waves that cross a given point per unit time • Wavelength – the spacing of the crests or troughs in a wave train • Analog – a continuous sine wavelength over a certain frequency range with a positive voltage representing a 1 and a negative charge representing a 0; mostly used for voice transmissions • Digital– a discrete flow in which data are coded as 0-bits and 1-bits and transmitted as a series of on-and-off electrical pulses • ITTU/CCITT – (International Telegraph and Telephone Union/International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) one of the main governing bodies that is responsible for setting the standards of the protocols that we deal with

4. Computer Generations • First Generation 1946-1956 Vacuum Tube • Very large, consumed huge amounts of power and generated much heat, had 2kb RAM, speed of .01 MHz, printing had to be done manually • Second Generation 1956-1963 Transistors • better than vacuum tubes, used less power, less heat, RAM increased to 32kb, speed of .2/.3 MHz • Third Generation 1964-1979 Integrated Circuits • printed transistors on small silicon chips, 2mb RAM, speed of 5MHz • Fourth Generation 1980-Present • VLSIC- very large-scale integrated circuit (the microprocessor), .18 micron, 500 MHz, 256 RAM, commercial machines hold gigabyte storage,1000 MHz

5. Computer Sizes • The most powerful computers are generally used in businesses and government agencies • These computers have the ability to service many simultaneous users and process data at very fast speeds • Types of “Big” computers are: • Supercomputers • Mainframes • Servers

6. Computer Sizes cont • Supercomputers: considered the fastest computers in the world at the time of construction; can tackle complex tasks other computers cannot; typical use includes breaking codes, modeling weather systems, and simulating nuclear explosions • Mainframes: a large and expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing data for hundreds or thousands of users; looks like a closet sized cabinet; used to provide centralized storage, processing and management for large amounts of data • Servers: “serves” data to computers in a network; Google search results are provided by servers; about the size of a desk draw and mounted in racks of multiple servers

7. Choosing a Digital Device • The following activities can get you started on choosing the right digital device: • Consider how you plan to use your device • Choose the type of device • Decide on a budget and stick to it • Select a platform • Check out the device’s specifications Unit 2: Digital Devices

9. Choosing a Digital Device • The most popular digital devices are desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones

10. Choosing a Digital Device • Computers that operate essentially the same way and use the same software are said to be compatible or having the same “platform” • You can assess whether two computers are compatible by checking their operating systems

11. Microprocessors • A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed to process instructions • It is the most important, and usually the most expensive, component of a digital device • Intel Corporation is the world’s largest chipmaker and supplies a sizeable percentage of the microprocessors that power desktops and laptops

12. Microprocessors • Finding the microprocessor that’s best for you depends on your budget and the type of work and play you plan to do • If you know the make and model of a digital device, you can generally find processor specifications by searching online

13. Reading a computer AD • Computer ads are loaded with jargon and acronyms, such as RAM, ROM, GHz, GB, and USB

14. The Computer Schematic

15. The Computer Bytes • Computers deal in either • ASCII- American Standard Code for Information Interchange (7 bits with 1 parity bit) • EX. A = 01000001 • EBCDIC- Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code an 8-bit code used in IBM • EX. A = 11000001

16. Representing Text

17. Bits and Bytes • The word bit, an abbreviation for binary digit, can be further abbreviated as a lowercase b • A group of eight bits is called a byte and is usually abbreviated as an uppercase B • When reading about digital devices, you’ll frequently encounter references such as 50 kilobits per second, 1.44 megabytes, 2.8 gigahertz, and 2 terabytes. • Kilo, mega, giga, tera, and similar terms are used to quantify digital data

18. Bits and Bytes

19. Understanding Bits and Bytes

20. More Bits and Bytes • Use bits for data rates, such as Internet connection speeds, and movie download speeds • Use bytes for file sizes and storage capacities

21. Converting to Binary

22. The Computer Process Cycle • ALU- Arithmetic-Logic Unit • performs the principal logical and arithmetic operations • determines quantities, logic operations such as binary codes pertaining to letters or numbers • Control Unit • coordinates and controls other parts of the computer system. The series of operations required to process a single instruction is called a machine cycle.

23. How Processors Work • Operational units of the microprocessor are: • The ALU (arithmetic logic unit) is part of the microprocessor that performs arithmetic operations, such as addition and subtraction • The ALU uses registers to hold data that is being processed • The microprocessor’s control unit fetches each instruction

24. The Machine Cycle • Instruction Cycle • the control unit retrieves one program from primary storage and decodes it. It places part of the instruction in the ALU. • Execution Cycle • the control unit locates the required data in primary storage, places it in a storage register, instructs the ALU to perform the function, finally places the result in primary storage • As each instruction is completed the CU advances

25. How Processors Work • The term instruction cycle refers to the process in which a computer executes a single instruction

26. Improving Performance • The main ways to accomplish this are: • word length -the number of bits that can be processed together as a unit • current computers are either 16 or 32 bit • bus width - the amount of bits that can be transferred within the computer at any given computer interrupt • bus width range also varies • RISC- reduced instruction set computing • Number of cores • Processing • clock speed

27. Performance • A microprocessor that contains circuitry for more than one processing unit is called a multicore processor FOUR CORES OF AN INTEL FOURTH-GEN MICROPROCESSOR

28. Types of Processing • Some processors execute instructions “serially” – or one instruction at a time • With serial processing, the processor must complete all steps in the instruction cycle before it begins to execute the next instruction • When a processor begins to execute an instruction before it completes the previous instruction, it is using pipeline processing • Parallel processing executes more than one instruction at a time and works well with today’s multicore microprocessors

29. More on types of Processing • Pipeline and parallel processing offer better performance than serial processing

30. CPU Clock Speed Example Parameters 1,000,000 cycles per second 100 cycles to handle the communications interrupt 8000 characters/second = 64,000 bits/second Formula X characters/second * X cycles/characters = % Communication use of CPU Total cycles/second 8000 chars/sec * 100 cycles/characters = 80% 1,000,000 cycles/sec

31. Types of Processing • Serial Processing/ Central Processing - • one computer one result • Parallel Processing/ Distributed Processing • many computers to achieve one result

32. Random Access Memory • RAM (random access memory) is a temporary holding area for data, application program instructions, and the operating system • Higher RAM capacity adds to the expense of a device • In RAM, microscopic electronic parts called capacitors hold the bits that represent data • Most RAM is volatile, meaning it needs electrical power to hold data

33. Read-Only Memory • ROM (read-only memory) is a type of memory circuitry that is housed in a single integrated circuit on the system board • ROM contains a small set of instructions and data called the boot loader which tell a digital device how to start

34. Read-Only Memory • There are several reasons why you might want to change the contents of ROM and boot loader instructions, including: • Repair • User modification • Forensics • Updates

35. Network Computing • Client/Server Computing • a model that allows ‘clients’ to connect to a main server to allow quicker processing and sharing • The idea of thin clients • the bulk of processing occurs on the server • Is this cheaper? The idea of TCO • total cost of ownership • What about failures?, No access to data.

36. Storage Basics • Storage is a term used for the components of a digital device designed to hold data permanently • A data storage system has two main components: a storage medium and a storage device • Storage medium – the disk, tape, CD, or DVD that contains data • Storage device – the mechanical apparatus that records and retrieves data from a storage medium

37. Storage Basics • Each storage technology has its advantages and disadvantages so review their durability, dependability, speed, capacity, and cost before buying

38. Are you running out of storage space

39. Magnetic Storage Technology

40. Magnetic Storage Technology • Hard disk drive specifications include: • Access time – the average time it takes a computer to locate data on the storage medium and read it • Data transfer rate – the amount of data a storage device can move per second from the storage medium to RAM

41. Optical Storage Technology • CD, DVD, and Blu-ray (BD) technologies are classified as optical storage, which represents data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disc surface • The dark spots are called pits; the lighter, non-pitted surface areas of the disc are called lands

42. Optical Storage Technology • A single optical drive typically handles CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, but the costs and capacities of these discs vary

43. Solid State Storage Technology • A solid state drive (SSD) is a package of flash memory that can be used as a substitute for a hard disk drive • A USB flash drive is a portable storage device that plugs directly into a computer’s system unit using a built-in USB connector

44. Cloud Storage • Remote storage is housed on an external device that can be accessed from a network • Remote storage can also be available as an Internet service, in which case it is called cloud storage • Cloud storage is provided to individuals by services such as Apple iCloud, Microsoft OneDrive, Google Drive, and Dropbox DROPBOX IN THE CLOUD

45. Cloud Storage • Some cloud implementations offer a synchronization feature that automatically duplicates files stored on a local device by also saving them in the cloud

46. Cloud Storage • Cloud Storage basics: • Security and privacy risks – the more places your data is stored and the more networks on which it tavels, the more susceptible it becomes to hackers and spying agencies • Service outages – when a cloud storage site has an outage, all the data stored there become temporarily inaccessible • Discontinuation of service – some cloud storage providers have closed down their services with little warning

47. Backup • A backup is a copy of one or more files that is made in case the originals become damaged or lost • Figuring out what to backup is important; backing up everything isn’t always practical What can you afford to lose?

48. Backup • When deciding on what to back up, know what’s important and ensure that current versions exist on more than one storage device

49. Add-on Gadgets • There are lots of options available for gadgets that accompany your digital devices

50. Expansion Ports • Many digital devices have ports in the system unit for connecting cables and various add-ons; these ports are called expansion ports because they expand the options for input, output, and storage • When you plug in a USB flash drive or insert a memory card, you are using an expansion port