Leadership

1. Leadership There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. Machiavelli 1513

2. Leadership • ‘romance’ of leadership debated in organisational theory • 'Any evidence for a systematic relationship between leadership styles & organisational performance?’ • Subtexts (p87) • A means of generating ‘stories’ about how kinds of power & influence can be exerted • role of leadership in organisations related to • control over meanings & interpretations of important groups • its effectiveness is as a political tool • Meindl et al 1985, cited in Jaffee, 2001

3. A source of ‘political control and influence’ • An more negative argument within organisational sociological tradition • how leadership can influence how a situation is defined • challenges managerial psychology views i.e leadership as an element of group and organisational functioning ( ‘managerialist legitimation’?)

4. Leadership: Conceptual and practical dilemmas • best understood in ‘high profile’, public figure sense • we don’t like the bad ones (Hitler, Maxwell) • often associated with male attributes, which may limit its definitions and thus what happens in reality • may create problems for women put into leadership roles • we feel its absence (leaderless, directionless)

5. Psychological view of ‘what is a leader’ - Kelly, 1991 • We may nominate leaders’ differently, depending upon understanding of what the situation demands (originality; defence of group; devotion to duty, etc.) and the role we expect to be played • Leader • one who performs a variety of jobs popularly recognised as "leadership" jobs (socially constructed) • needs to understand his/her role in group social processes • Dynamic, socio-psychological interplay between followers & leadership

6. Authority and Leadership • Max Webereffective exercise of authority requires the authority figure to possess legitimacy, thru. charisma, reputation, lineage or exceptional credentials. • Katz & Kahn (1966)occupying a formal position of authority is not enough – must possess qualities to motivate & energise others. • Henry Mintzberg (1973) All managers adopt a leader role as one of their roles - to integrate individual goals/needs & organisational goals/needs.

7. Four approaches to leadership • Trait theoriesBrynman 1996 reviewed literature to elicit essential e.g. physique, height, intelligence, sociability, assertiveness - no commonality. • Leadership functions and stylesTannenbaum et al 1961, Likert 1961; Adair, 1965 e.g. task leaders vs. social leaders; participative or exploitative • Contingency or situational leadershipconcerned with relationships between traits/styles & the situation or context (Feidler 1967; Hersey, Blanchard & Johnson, 1998) • "New Leadership" ..... Transformationalcreate organisational culture that motivates & stimulates continuous learning, quality & self initiative - Burns 1975 and Bass 1985

8. Bennis (1989) • Managers (transactional) • administer, copy, maintain • focus on systems & structure • rely on control • short-range view - bottom line • ask how & when • accept the status quo • classic good soldier • do things right • Leaders (transformational) • innovation & originality • develop • focus on people & inspire trust • long-range view - the horizon • ask what & why • challenge the status quo • are their own person • do the right things 'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule’ Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'. (Peters & Austin, 1985).

9. Maintaining or losing leadership • Followers have expectations • task competence (Fincham & Rhodes 1999) • socio-emotional competence especially re-group • Gap may exist between actual & perceived competence – influences willingness of followers to comply - Price & Garland, 1981 • Idiosyncratic credit – permission to deviate from group norms - maintaining credit is crucial to surviving in leadership position Hollander, 1958 • Common-sense + research link between mgr-leader behaviour & subordinate performance • belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'.

10. Classical management functions Fayol • plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives. • Generate & follow • policies, rules & procedures (admin. > mgt?) • seek order & control. • handle & direct resources: • money, materials, equip't, space, facilities, • information & technology • use of time • people • Have 'subordinates' and communicate • enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas • Telling people what to do & how to do it > vision & giving a sense of direction?

11. Management development & leadership • .Can leadership skills really be developed? • Drake's Drum? • "The Playing Fields of Eton" • team games e.g. rugby, hockey? • simulated field experience (outward bound)? • assessment centre (workshop selection & devel)? • coaching & mentoring • going on a leadership course? • meditation? • reading a book, watching TV?

12. Academic & practitioner recipes • a mix of traditional & behavioural science approaches • few studies offer much to the practical manager (Adair) • academic doubts. Textbooks tend to • report 'theories' few query the validity of each approach • the prescriptions/recommendations  an industry selling • Elixirs, recipes, 'leadership development' packages: interpersonal skills, motivating, listening, participative problem solving, assertiveness & transforming skills

13. Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference • One set of values, beliefs, commitments • Shared understanding & commitment to objectives • One source of leadership • Team members - All pulling in the same direction • Potential for harmony is assumed if leader communicates well • Disagreements  the result of misunderstanding • Dissidents & "rabble" hypothesis Alan Fox – Research Paper to Donovan Commission 1968

14. How do different 'styles' affect an organisation? • wide ranging & open to question • difficult to research - what are the variables? • difficult to • separate fact from fiction • attribute cause & effect in different contexts & organisational settings over time • ambiguity of measures of organisational performance • gap between perception of practitioners & behavioural scientists

15. Leadership traits approach • Bird 1940, Brynman 1996 identified traits from 'the literature'. Few common to all studies • everyday wisdom on common traits • many descriptors & many heroes and villains - difficult to agree on one trait list • when leaders behave towards followers in different ways, how much is cause, how much is effect? • do some 'qualities' indicate potential differentiating the 'effective from the ineffective'? • but non-leaders often possess the same traits as leaders Conclusion? • Consider followers & situation that L. occurs in.

16. Style approaches Mayo & Hawthorne experiments (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939) • 'permissive', sensitive leadership behaviour  more output • Relay Assembly room - increased output influenced by 'permissive' management of researchers • Bank Wiring room - links management style, employee attitudes and behaviour Kurt Lewin (1939) - adult leaders in boys' hobby club • autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leader styles & the behaviour/performance of youth groups • language & model linking "styles"  subordinate performance • Democratic style reflects dominant social values • Impetus for further study - Michigan & Ohio State

17. Ohio State studies (two factor theories) Flieshman 1953 Stogdill (1948, 1956) two (independent) L - dimensions • initiating structure (task centred) • consideration (interpersonal relationships) "measure" perception & style preferences in various settings  inventories & development prescriptions. Effectiveness reflects • task completion • member satisfaction Supervisors • High task - productive but high turnover, lower morale • High consideration - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions • Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration. • Participative styles preferred

18. Critique of Ohio Studies • output measures can often be favourably affected in the short term by authoritarian leadership. • The problems of social research • Hawthorne effect • Abstracted empiricism • likelihood that change in performance stems from more than one variable

19. Concern for people 5.5. Michigan Studies Managerial Grid • programmes for changing style & org. culture • 'proprietary' approaches to assessment & training (treatment) • Blake - Moulton Managerial Grid (1968) • Extended with contingency focus • Tannenbaum (1958) • Reddin (1970) • Hersey & Blanchard (1977) 1.9 9.9. the ideal one-best style High 1.1 9.1. Low Low High Concern for production

20. Critique of style theories • Universality of the style? • weak evidence for usefulness of 'style' theories • Style changes often assoc. with changes in org. structure + other mgt competencies . • Fiedler (1967) - Are participative, considerate styles really better than trad. authoritarian/directive? • Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour change from directive to participative

21. Joins Delegates Abdicates Tells Sells Suggests Consults Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum Boss-centred Follower-centred use of authority by leader decision making & action freedom for followers Position on continuumbased on situational factors: value system, wants, confidence, willingness.

22. Task • functions • Group • maintenance • Individual • needs Adair: Action-centred leadership • Simple model – useful for junior mgt training • functional & situational emphasis on task situation + socio-emotional needs • Aware of group processes, people in group, nuances of behaviour, interpersonal skills

23. Critique of Group Dynamics approach • If leadership behaviour is situationally & group related what happens when the situation or group changes? • Does the organisation function sub-optimally? • ignores wider organisational demands on leader & group. Yet • we see how leaders may relate to followers & situations

24. Theoretically weak • no proper rationale for the hypothesised relationships • Maturity - an over-simplified factor - lacks empirical support (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983; Blank et al, 1990). Situational L. (Hersey & Blanchard 1977 & 82) • contingency approach • follower maturity a critical situational variable • two dimensions • task style • relationship style • Four styles • telling, selling, participating, delegating. • follower maturity • degree of achievement motivation • willingness to take on responsibility • education or experience

25. Manager executive Developer Effectiveness • Too many labels Benevolent autocrat Bureaucrat Related Integrated Relationships Missionary Compromiser Separated Dedicated Deserter Autocrat Reddin 3-D (style-contingency approach) High High Low Low Low High Task

26. Problems with contingency theories? • what causes what - in real life? • like style theories, difficult to understand why a favourable view of the leader in some groups. • 'permissive' leadership: the consequence > the cause of group effectiveness • social learning - leader & subordinates/followers • have negotiable, interactive relationship • learn to modify or influence each other's behaviour by giving or holding back desired rewards

27. The search for the Grail ? • exercising effective-L is more & more difficult • economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc. • political change South Africa, CIS, Italy, Japan + Europe • big transnational firms • less goodwill & traditional deference towards leaders • Many skills & techniques of today's senior execs are being superseded. Which ones? • Competition & changing markets, products, technologies & expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - & leadership

28. fresh thinking? Romanticism? • creates conditions for followers to want to achieve results & fulfil selves. • bridges small group studies & leadership by ’movers & shakers’ who transform organisations Transformational leadership theory • Context? late-20thC national & global pol-econ. change • Contributors: Downton (1973), Burns (1978), Bass (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985), Tichy & Devanna (1986) • Bass surveyed 70 execs"In your careers, who transformed you in Burns' terms (raised awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy …. to transcend self-interest etc). • Answer: usually an organisational superior.

29. From Laissez faire to Transactional • Laissez-faire • not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow up, passivity, potential for confusion • Transactional leaders • management by exception • passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo • active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative & risk-taking • constructive transactions, contingent rewards • agree standards/objectives, feedback, PR rewards • outcome: performance that meets expectations. • simplified in One-Min. Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982). Airport business books

30. Transactional leadership • Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP - do they? • Laissez-faire & transactional in directive, consultative, participative & delegative styles • directive + Mgt by Exception'These are the rules and this is how you've broken them'. • participative + Mgt by ExceptionLet's work together to identify mistakes' Weaknesses • Carrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets, systems, controls • management > leadership • fails to develop, motivate, bring to full potential (Bass)

31. The transformational leader (Bass’s four 'I's) promotes • follower desire for achievement & self-development. • teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief, value Four 'I's. • lndividualised consideration (IC) • Intellectual stimulation (IS) • Inspirational motivation (IM) • ldealised influence (charisma) (II)

32. Individualised consideration & Intellectual stimulation IC • identifying individuals' needs & abilities, opps. to learn, delegating, coaching & giving developmental feedback. Spend time with individuals e.g. mentoring. IS • question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity, logical thinking & intuition. • unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation. • compare 1960s UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Yamaha and Seiko

33. Inspirational motivation & ldealised influence IM • Clear vision, problems as opportunities, language & symbols • I had a dream …... • Ask not what America can do for you. Ask what you can do.. • Go the extra mile. Iacocca at Chrysler. II • Confident in communicating a virtuous vision • The buck stops here'. Purpose, persistence, trust, accomplish > failure. Respected for personal ability Leadership .. the priceless gift you earn from those who work for you. I have to earn the right to that gift, and continuously re-earn (it). John Harvey-Jones (ICI) • Gandhi, Luther King, Thatcher, Blair • Hitler, Jim Jones

34. IS IC • Learn TL!! • Avolio-Bass training package II IM ContingentRewards MbEx-A MbEx-P • Sales pitch - encouraging TL will • project confidence, commitment & competence • attract quality staff to mission & challenge • develop people fully to respond better to competition & change LFaire Bass's model effective passive active ineffective

35. Is transformational leadership cross-cultural? • ‘exporting participative management or Theory Y from the USA to authoritarian cultures is like 'preaching Jeffersonian democracy to managers who believe in the divine right of kings'. Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966 • Leadership - a universal phenomenon? • context & culture influences • Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy, Sweden, Canada, New Zealand, India, Japan & Singapore • suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning across cultures ??

36. Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need 'em? • 1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory & research in explaining effect on motivation & performance 'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr & Jermier 1978) • Are there substitutes making L-behaviour unnecessary e.g. • 'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to perform well & to be motivated. Depends on • the individuals, the work, the organisation & its structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader

37. Exam Question • Review alternative leadership theories and analyse their value in terms of • (a) guiding decisions in selecting managers to run modern organisations • (b) giving pointers to individuals in developing skills and abilities that, in a range of situations, may further their career aspirations.