Reynolds Meeting 2010

1. Medical Education Reform:Nostalgia, Autonomy and Libertarianism Meets Changing Forces and External Drivers Reynolds Meeting 2010

2. Outline • Historical and current forces in medicine and education • External forces driving change • Reform and implications of CBME • Moving forward

3. Nostalgialitis Imperfecta • Syndrome characterized by the following signs and symptoms: • “When I was an intern…<insert superlative>” • “Medicine was so much better 25 years ago” • Reality: Not really… • “Younger physicians today are less professional, skilled, etc. because of <insert favorite complaint>”

4. Faculty and Clinical Skills “Evidently it is not deemed necessary to assay students’ and residents’ clinical performance once they have entered the clinical years. Nor do clinical instructors more than occasionally show how they themselves elicit and check the reliability of the clinical data…

5. Faculty and Clinical Skills To a degree that is often at variance with their own professed scientific standards, attending staff all too often accept and use as the basis for discussion, if not recommendations, findings reported by students and residents without ever evaluating the reporter’s mastery of the clinical methods utilized or the reliability of the data obtained.”

6. Faculty and Clinical Skills From George Engel 1976 editorial on JAMA paper highlighting deficiencies in student and resident basic clinical skills

7. Autonomy • Professional autonomy has traditionally meant the individual has substantial control over their professional practice and judgment. • Two key aspects1: • Capacity for self-governance • Non-interference with the professional’s control over their lives and actions. 1MacDonald C. Nurse autonomy as relational. Nursing Ethics. 2002; 9: 194-201

8. Libertarianism • Long (1998): “Any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals” • Three distinct movements1: • Libertarian Capitalism • Libertarian Socialism • Libertarian Populism* 1 Long RT. Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class. Social Philosophy and Policy Foundation. 1998.

9. Libertarianism and Medicine • Libertarianism “seeks to empower individuals to govern their own lives through voluntary cooperation with one another, as opposed to top-down control of individuals by the state1” • Libertarian “streaks” in Medical Education • Tension between programs and ACGME/RRCs, despite the fact the RRCs represent a self-regulatory process • Coercive state: the ACGME/ABMS? • Common refrain: We’re just fine on our own… 1 Long RT. Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class. Social Philosophy and Policy Foundation. 1998.

10. Culture in the United States • American culture developmentally still in adolescent phase • Strong streaks of independence • Rebellious • Optimistic (usually) • Power of dreams

11. Codes for Health and Medicine • Health and wellness = Movement • Doctors = Hero • Remember the GE commercial during the Olympics? • Nurses = Mother • Hospitals = Processing Plant C. Rapaille. The Culture Code. An Ingenious Way to Understand Why People Around the World Live and Buy as They Do. Broadway Books, NY, NY. 2006.

12. Physicians: Knights, Knaves or Pawns?1 Julian LeGrand (British Sociologist) • Knights (virtue) • “Trusted to wisely use and deploy resources, minimize waste, and look beyond their narrow individual and specialty interests to protect the system as a whole. Individual physician decision-making and autonomy are preserved as the highest-end. It is the physician who is the ultimate champion of the patient and policies are structured to support the physician’s work. ” 1Jain S and Cassel CK. Physicians: Knights, Knaves, or Pawns? JAMA. 2010.

13. Physicians: Knights, Knaves or Pawns?1 • Knaves (rigid self-interest) • “Fraud, abuse, and waste are the behaviors that come most naturally to the knave—and it the role of society to monitor for these behaviors and impose stiff personal and financial penalties to deter them.” • Pawns (passive victims) • “The pawn physician is merely a function of the environment and incentives he or she is given; accordingly, physicians must be given guidelines to follow and policymakers and regulators must decide clinical priorities.” 1Jain S and Cassel CK. Physicians: Knights, Knaves, or Pawns? JAMA. 2010.

14. Reforming Medical Education

15. Internal Medicine:Call for Change in Training: > 20 Years • Steve Schroeder (AIM 1986; 2006) • “Putt or get off the green” • IOM • Competencies for ALL healthcare providers • Core: provide patient-centered care • ACGME • 2001: Launch of the Outcomes Project • Evolving RRC regulations

16. Medical Education:Calls for Change • COGME (1999) • encourage clinical experience in varied settings that mirror environments in which graduates will practice; • participation in team-based care; • training in population-based care; training in disease prevention and wellness; and • development of advanced communication skills including conflict resolution, cultural competence, patient advocacy and effective use of various media and technologies.

17. Call for Change: The Community • AAIM • ACP • APDIM • SGIM • Individuals • Although all argued for “competency-based” training, most proposals still time and curricular-based with recommendations for better assessment

18. IM RRC Regulations – 7/09 ~ a 40% reduction in time and process requirements

19. Outcomes Project Phase 3 • July 2006 – June 2011 • Program focus • Use resident performance data as the basis for improvement • Begin to use external measures to verify resident and program performance • Accreditation focus • Review evidence that programs are making data-driven improvements

20. Subspecialty Training Experience • 2004 • Must have clinical experience in each of the subspecialties of internal medicine (one month each) • Must have formal instruction and assigned clinical experience in geriatric medicine (one month • 2009 • Are expected to demonstrate the ability to manage patients across the spectrum of clinical disorders seen in the practice of GIM including the subspecialties of IM

21. Core Faculty Requirement (7/09) • Expert competency evaluators • Specifically trained in the evaluation and assessment of the ACGME core competencies • Spend significant time in the evaluation of residents including the direct observation of residents with patients

22. 2009 IM RRC Regulations:Pt Care and Safety • Sponsoring Institution must: • Demonstrate that there is a culture of patient safety and continuous quality improvement in the quality of patient care, patient safety, and education. • Program Director must: • Ensure that departmental clinical quality improvement programs are integrated into the residency program.

23. External Forces

24. What’s New: Substantial External Pressure • Institute of Medicine (2008) • Resident Duty Hours: Enhancing Sleep, Supervision, and Safety • Retooling for an Aging America • MedPAC • June 2009 Report • October 2009 Hearing • June 2010 Report • AMSA, Public Citizen and OSHA (2010)

25. 2008 IOM Work Hours Report • Recommendation: To increase patient safety and enhance education for residents, the ACGME should ensure that programs provide adequate, direct, onsite supervision for residents.

26. Effective Supervision AMEE Guide (Kilminster; Med Teach, 2007) • Empirical evidence supports: • Direct supervision helps trainees gain skills faster, and behavior changes more quickly • Quality of relationship affects effectiveness of supervision • Continuity and reflection • Self supervision not effective • Better supervision associated with improved patient safety and quality of care.

27. Re-conceptualizing Supervision • Traditional approach: • Execution of trainee clinical decisions and actions and subsequent review by faculty separated by variable time and space • The late night phone call with subsequent visit by the attending hours later during morning rounds (time and space) • Precepting in clinic without seeing the patient (space)

28. Current Models of Supervision • Underlying beliefs and assumptions: • Physician autonomy • Graduated independence • Trainees have to make and execute decisions on their own, without interference, in order to “learn” (including mistakes) • Supervision = “taking over” for the trainee; interference; dependence.

29. Problems with Traditional View • Faculty inaccuracy in knowing trainee’s ability in key clinical skills • Multiple studies highlighting deficits • Discordance between trainee and faculty judgment • Implications for patient care and safety • Delayed feedback and learning

30. Progressive Independence: Kennedy • Acad Med (2005): Limited empirical support for current models • However, educational theories support need for progressive independence • JGIM (2007): Taxonomy of oversight activities • Mostly reactive in nature • BMJ (2009): Trainee decision to seek help dependent on clinical question, supervisor and trainee factors

31. MedPAC Report: June 2009 • Rationale: CMS and Public not getting appropriate ROI on 9+ billion dollar investment • Findings: residencies fall far short in • Outpatient care coordination • Multi-disciplinary teamwork • Awareness of health cost • Comprehensive health IT • Pt care in non-hospital setting • Plans: MedPAC to explore how changes to current GME payment policies can be leveraged to accelerate change

32. MedPAC October 2009 Hearing • MedPAC Chair: • “The system is on the wrong track and is not self-correcting – to me that cries out for a policy intervention”. • Potential focus of 2010 report • Fund teaching program demonstration projects • Shift portion of IME from hospital to program • Provide greater support to other federal programs to address pipeline issues

33. MedPAC June 2010 4-1 The Congress should authorize the Secretary to change Medicare’s funding of graduate medical education (GME) to support the workforce skills needed in a delivery system that reduces cost growth while maintaining or improving quality.

34. MedPAC June 2010 • The standards…should specify ambitious goals for practice-based learning and improvement, interpersonal and communication skills, professionalism, and systems-based practice, including integration of community-based care with hospital care. • The indirect medical education (IME) payments above the empirically justified amount should be removed from the IME adjustment and that sum would be used to fund the new performance-based GME program.

35. MedPAC June 2010 4-2 The Secretary should annually publish a report that shows Medicare Med Ed payments received by each hospital and each hospital’s associated costs. This report should be publicly accessible and clearly identify each hospital, the DME and IME payments received, the number of residents and other health professionals that Medicare supports, and Medicare’s share of teaching costs incurred. 4-3 The Secretary should conduct workforce analysis to determine the number of residency positions needed in the United States in total and by specialty. In addition, analysis should examine and consider the optimal level and mix of other health professionals.

36. Educating Physicians:The “2010 Flexner Report” Cooke, Irby and O’Brien

37. Educating Physicians1 • “Can medical education’s illustrious past serve as an adequate guide to a future of excellence? Flexner asserted that scientific inquiry and discovery, not past traditions and practices, should point the way to the future in both medicine and medical education…” 1Cooke M, Irby DM and O’Brien BC. Educating Physicians. 2010.

38. Educating Physicians • “…Medical training is inflexible, excessively long, and not learner-centered. We found that clinical education is overly focused on inpatient clinical experience, supervised by clinical faculty who have less and less time to teach and who have ceded much of their teaching responsibilities to residents, and situated in hospitals with marginal capacity to support their teaching mission.”

39. Recommendations • Standardize learning outcomes through assessment of competencies • Individualize learning process within and across levels • Incorporate interprofessional education and teamwork into curriculum • Prepare learners to attain both routine and adaptive forms of expertise

40. Recommendations • Engage learners in initiatives focused on population health, quality improvement and patient safety • Locate clinical education in settings where quality patient care is delivered, not just in university teaching hospitals • Address the underlying messages expressed in the hidden curriculum

41. Francisco Varela (1946-2001) • “The blind spot of contemporary science (and education) is experience” • What does this mean to you? • How can we hold the paradox of learning from past experience and the need to let go?

42. Competency-based Medical Education

43. Competency-based Education Not a New Concept • Origins began around time of Flexner (1910-20) • Industry and business looking for workforce with specific skills • Modern Impetus • Reform of teacher education in 1960s • Vocational education in 1970s onward • Medicine “late” to concept

44. Origins of CBET Behaviorism Thorndike Scientific Management Taylor Progressive Education Dewey Operant conditioning Objective-based instruction Minimum competency tests Mastery-based learning Criterion-referenced tests Instructional design CBET McCowan; CDHS, 1998

45. Competency-Based Medical Education … is an approach to preparing physicians for practice that is fundamentally oriented to graduate outcome abilities and organized around competencies derived from an analysis of societal and patient needs. It deemphasizes time-based training and promises greater accountability, flexibility, and learner centredness. the unit of progression is masteryof specific knowledge and skills Frank, JR, Snell LS, ten Cate O, et. al. Competency-based medical education: theory to practice. Med Teach. 2010; 32: 638–645

46. Mandates of Outcomes-based Training • Programs must be able to demonstrate that students, residents and fellows graduate with high levels of knowledge, skills and attitudes. • Must also be able to determine with high degree of accuracy that trainee is ready to advance • Exposure and dwell time are not sufficient proxies for competence • Not shooting for “the floor” of competence

47. Carraccio, et al. 2002.

48. Faculty Clinical Skills - OSCE(N=44) 1On 7-point scale Kogan J, et al. Acad Med. 2010; In press

49. Faculty Skills: Assessment Kogan JR, et al. Opening the Black Box of Clinical Skills Assessment via Direct Observation: A Qualitative Study. Submitted 2010

50. Deliberate Practice • Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996: • “Individualized training activities • especially designed by a coach or teacher • to improve specific aspects of an individual's performance through repetition and successive refinement. • To receive maximal benefit from feedback, individuals have to monitor their training with full concentration, which is effortful and limits the duration of daily training”.