chapter 10: motivation and emotion

1. Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion

2. Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people toward behavior. Drive theories hold that motivation is based in an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension�organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability. Incentive theories hold that motivation is regulated by external stimuli�ice cream, an A, money, etc. Evolutionary theories hold that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success�explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value. Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people toward behavior. Drive theories hold that motivation is based in an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension�organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability. Incentive theories hold that motivation is regulated by external stimuli�ice cream, an A, money, etc. Evolutionary theories hold that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success�explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value.

4. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Biological Factors Brain regulation Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus Paraventricular nucleus Glucose and digestive regulation Glucostatic theory Hormonal regulation Insulin and leptin In the early 1900�s, Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger; Cannon hypothesized a causal relationship, yet people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones. Research in the 40�s and 50�s showed that the hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH), are important in hunger. The LH was thought to be the hunger center, while the VMH was thought to be the satiety center. Subsequent research indicated that this was an oversimplified picture, although the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, they are not the key elements. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit. Other research has focused on the role of blood glucose and digestive regulation on hunger; when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up. Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by glucostats � neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger is regulated, in part, through glucostatic mechanisms. Hormones circulating in the blood also appear to be related to hunger. Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. Increases in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of food has been shown to increase insulin. Recently, a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high.In the early 1900�s, Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger; Cannon hypothesized a causal relationship, yet people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones. Research in the 40�s and 50�s showed that the hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH), are important in hunger. The LH was thought to be the hunger center, while the VMH was thought to be the satiety center. Subsequent research indicated that this was an oversimplified picture, although the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, they are not the key elements. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit. Other research has focused on the role of blood glucose and digestive regulation on hunger; when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up. Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by glucostats � neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger is regulated, in part, through glucostatic mechanisms. Hormones circulating in the blood also appear to be related to hunger. Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. Increases in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of food has been shown to increase insulin. Recently, a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high.

6. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Environmental Factors Learned preferences and habits Exposure When, as well as what Food-related cues Appearance, odor, effort required Stress Link between heightened arousal/negative emotion and overeating Clearly, hunger is related to biology; however, it is also regulated by environmental factors like learned preferences. Studies show that people like foods that are familiar to them; dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world. Exposure and observational learning appear to play a part in what we like to eat. Learning also appears to influence when and how much people eat. Food related cues are environmental cues that have been associated with eating, such as the appearance or odor of food, the effort required to eat a particular food, etc. Research shows that these external cues influence eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological hunger. Finally, stress has been shown to be related to increased eating, with some research indicating that chronic dieters are more likely to respond to stress with eating. It is unclear whether stress induced eating is caused by physiological arousal or negative emotion. It is also unclear whether the effects of stress on hunger are direct or indirect.Clearly, hunger is related to biology; however, it is also regulated by environmental factors like learned preferences. Studies show that people like foods that are familiar to them; dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world. Exposure and observational learning appear to play a part in what we like to eat. Learning also appears to influence when and how much people eat. Food related cues are environmental cues that have been associated with eating, such as the appearance or odor of food, the effort required to eat a particular food, etc. Research shows that these external cues influence eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological hunger. Finally, stress has been shown to be related to increased eating, with some research indicating that chronic dieters are more likely to respond to stress with eating. It is unclear whether stress induced eating is caused by physiological arousal or negative emotion. It is also unclear whether the effects of stress on hunger are direct or indirect.

7. Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity Evolutionary explanations Genetic predisposition Body Mass Index and adoption study The concept of set point/settling point Dietary restraint Obesity is the condition of being overweight. Criteria differ, but one definition assumes that people are overweight if their weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%. Obesity is a significant health problem, elevating mortality risk. Evolutionary explanations for increases in the prevalence of obesity are based in food supply changes. Whereas most animals evolved in environments where competition for food was fierce and food supplies were unreliable, the vast majority of humans now live in environments where food is abundant and reliable. Research suggests that some people can eat more than others without gaining weight and that this may have a genetic basis. When adults raised by foster parents are compared to biological and foster parents in regard to BMI (weight in kilograms divided by height in meters, squared), adoptees resemble biological parents, not adoptive. Twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for 61% of the variation in body weight among men and 73% among women. Lose weight on a diet, gain it back. The reverse is also true. Intentionally put on weight and have a hard time keeping it on. Richard Keesy, 1995, suggests that our bodies have a set point, or natural point of stability in body weight. This appears to be related to fat cell levels�when fat stores slip below a crucial level, hunger increases and metabolism decreases. Settling-point theory (Pinel, et al., 2000) alternatively proposes that weight hovers near the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium. Thus, according to this theory, weight remains stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it. Researchers have also shown that dietary restraint may contribute to obesity. Chronic dieters restrain themselves from eating and go hungry much of the time, but they are constantly thinking about food. When they give in, they become disinhibited and eat to excess�the �I�ve already blown it� problem.Obesity is the condition of being overweight. Criteria differ, but one definition assumes that people are overweight if their weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%. Obesity is a significant health problem, elevating mortality risk. Evolutionary explanations for increases in the prevalence of obesity are based in food supply changes. Whereas most animals evolved in environments where competition for food was fierce and food supplies were unreliable, the vast majority of humans now live in environments where food is abundant and reliable. Research suggests that some people can eat more than others without gaining weight and that this may have a genetic basis. When adults raised by foster parents are compared to biological and foster parents in regard to BMI (weight in kilograms divided by height in meters, squared), adoptees resemble biological parents, not adoptive. Twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for 61% of the variation in body weight among men and 73% among women. Lose weight on a diet, gain it back. The reverse is also true. Intentionally put on weight and have a hard time keeping it on. Richard Keesy, 1995, suggests that our bodies have a set point, or natural point of stability in body weight. This appears to be related to fat cell levels�when fat stores slip below a crucial level, hunger increases and metabolism decreases. Settling-point theory (Pinel, et al., 2000) alternatively proposes that weight hovers near the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium. Thus, according to this theory, weight remains stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it. Researchers have also shown that dietary restraint may contribute to obesity. Chronic dieters restrain themselves from eating and go hungry much of the time, but they are constantly thinking about food. When they give in, they become disinhibited and eat to excess�the �I�ve already blown it� problem.

9. Sexual Motivation and Behavior: Determining Desire Hormonal regulation Estrogens Androgens Testosterone Pheromones Synchronized menstrual cycles Aphrodisiacs Erotic materials Attraction to a Partner The Coolidge effect Evolutionary factors Hormones exert considerable influence on sexual behavior in many animals, but human sexuality is influenced by much more than hormones. Research suggests that hormones do have at least a small role in human sexual behavior, as testosterone fluctuations are correlated with sexual activity. A pheromone is a chemical secreted by one animal that affects the behavior of another, usually detected through the sense of smell. Research on pheromones in humans is inconclusive with regard to sexual desire; however, they have been linked to synchronized ovulation among women who live together. Aphrodisiacs are substances thought to increase sexual desire. Research shows that oysters, vitamin E, etc., have no real impact on sexual desire. Pharmaceutical companies are, however, working on developing aphrodisiacs, and there are promising leads. Viagra is not a sexual stimulant, improving performance, not desire. Erotic materials have been shown to elevate sexual desire only for a few hours, but they may have an enduring effect on attitudes about sex. Aggressive pornography may make sexual coercion seem less offensive and may contribute to date rape. Attraction to a partner is a critical determinant of sexual interest. The phenomenon of a new sexual partner reviving sexual interest is termed the Coolidge effect. Evolutionary factors in human sexual behavior are theorized to hinge on parental investment, with females being more discriminating in choosing partners and less likely to engage in casual sex. This has been used to explain sex differences such as males thinking about sex more frequently, males emphasizing youthfulness and attractiveness in a potential partner, and females emphasizing status and financial prospects in a potential partner.Hormones exert considerable influence on sexual behavior in many animals, but human sexuality is influenced by much more than hormones. Research suggests that hormones do have at least a small role in human sexual behavior, as testosterone fluctuations are correlated with sexual activity. A pheromone is a chemical secreted by one animal that affects the behavior of another, usually detected through the sense of smell. Research on pheromones in humans is inconclusive with regard to sexual desire; however, they have been linked to synchronized ovulation among women who live together. Aphrodisiacs are substances thought to increase sexual desire. Research shows that oysters, vitamin E, etc., have no real impact on sexual desire. Pharmaceutical companies are, however, working on developing aphrodisiacs, and there are promising leads. Viagra is not a sexual stimulant, improving performance, not desire. Erotic materials have been shown to elevate sexual desire only for a few hours, but they may have an enduring effect on attitudes about sex. Aggressive pornography may make sexual coercion seem less offensive and may contribute to date rape. Attraction to a partner is a critical determinant of sexual interest. The phenomenon of a new sexual partner reviving sexual interest is termed the Coolidge effect. Evolutionary factors in human sexual behavior are theorized to hinge on parental investment, with females being more discriminating in choosing partners and less likely to engage in casual sex. This has been used to explain sex differences such as males thinking about sex more frequently, males emphasizing youthfulness and attractiveness in a potential partner, and females emphasizing status and financial prospects in a potential partner.

15. The Mystery of Sexual Orientation Heterosexual � Bisexual � Homosexual A continuum Theories explaining homosexuality Environmental Biological Interactionist Sexual orientation refers to a person�s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality). Recent conceptualizations of sexuality hold that homosexuality and heterosexuality are endpoints on a continuum. Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggests that 5-8% of the population may have a homosexual orientation. Many environmental theories explaining homosexuality have been put forth historically. Freud held that a person must identify with the same sexed parent, or homosexuality results. Behaviorists assert that homosexuality is learned through conditioning. Research has failed to support either theory. What has been found is that most men and women with homosexual orientations can trace their leanings back to early childhood, suggesting a biological basis. Biological research suggests that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality, possibly based on the X chromosome. Anatomical differences between gay and straight men in the size of the anterior hypothalamus have also been found. This structure is larger in men than in women, and this study showed that gay men had a 50% smaller AH than straight men. Some theorists believe that anatomical brain differences such as these may be due to the organizing effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development. The interactionist view holds that genes and prenatal hormones shape a child�s temperament, which initiates a chain of events that ultimately shapes sexual orientation. Sexual orientation refers to a person�s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality). Recent conceptualizations of sexuality hold that homosexuality and heterosexuality are endpoints on a continuum. Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggests that 5-8% of the population may have a homosexual orientation. Many environmental theories explaining homosexuality have been put forth historically. Freud held that a person must identify with the same sexed parent, or homosexuality results. Behaviorists assert that homosexuality is learned through conditioning. Research has failed to support either theory. What has been found is that most men and women with homosexual orientations can trace their leanings back to early childhood, suggesting a biological basis. Biological research suggests that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality, possibly based on the X chromosome. Anatomical differences between gay and straight men in the size of the anterior hypothalamus have also been found. This structure is larger in men than in women, and this study showed that gay men had a 50% smaller AH than straight men. Some theorists believe that anatomical brain differences such as these may be due to the organizing effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development. The interactionist view holds that genes and prenatal hormones shape a child�s temperament, which initiates a chain of events that ultimately shapes sexual orientation.

19. The Human Sexual Response Masters and Johnson � 1966 Stages: Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted groundbreaking research in the 1960s, using physiological recording devices to monitor the bodily changes of volunteers engaging in sexual activity. They outlined 4 stages in the sexual response cycle. The excitement phase is the initial arousal, which escalates quickly. Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure increase. Vasocongestion � engorgement of blood vessels occurs in the genitals. The plateau phase occurs when physiological arousal continues to build, but at a slower pace. The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, although women can be multiorgasmic. On the other hand, they are more likely to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm. The resolution phase is characterized by subsiding physiological arousal. Men experience a refractory period after orgasm, when they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to a few hours and increases with age.William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted groundbreaking research in the 1960s, using physiological recording devices to monitor the bodily changes of volunteers engaging in sexual activity. They outlined 4 stages in the sexual response cycle. The excitement phase is the initial arousal, which escalates quickly. Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure increase. Vasocongestion � engorgement of blood vessels occurs in the genitals. The plateau phase occurs when physiological arousal continues to build, but at a slower pace. The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, although women can be multiorgasmic. On the other hand, they are more likely to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm. The resolution phase is characterized by subsiding physiological arousal. Men experience a refractory period after orgasm, when they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to a few hours and increases with age.

22. Achievement Motivation Achievement motive = need to excel Work harder and more persistently Delay gratification Pursue competitive careers Situational influences on achievement motives Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Achievement motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to delay gratification well and to pursue competitive careers. Both affiliation and achievement motivation are generally measured using the TAT, a projective test which requires a subject to write or tell stories about what is happening in pictures of people in ambiguous scenes. Situational factors have been shown to influence achievement motivation, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid failure stimulates achievement.Achievement motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to delay gratification well and to pursue competitive careers. Both affiliation and achievement motivation are generally measured using the TAT, a projective test which requires a subject to write or tell stories about what is happening in pictures of people in ambiguous scenes. Situational factors have been shown to influence achievement motivation, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid failure stimulates achievement.

23. The Elements of Emotional Experience Cognitive component Subjective conscious experience Positive psychology Physiological component Bodily (autonomic) arousal Behavioral component Characteristic overt expressions The cognitive component of emotion involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect�a cognitive appraisal of an event is an important element in emotional experience. Researchers have, in the past, focused primarily on negative emotions, consistent with the bias in the field of psychology toward studying pathology, weakness, and suffering. In recent years, however, a group of psychologists have advocated for positive psychology�increasing research on contentment, well-being, human strength, and positive emotion. The physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional fight-or-flight response. The galvanic skin response (GSR) measures autonomic activation � the device that measures autonomic fluctuations while a person is questioned is called a polygraph or lie detector (really an emotion detector). Polygraph tests measure emotion, which may or may not be due to deceit; they are inaccurate often enough that they are deemed not reliable enough to be submitted as evidence in most types of courtrooms. In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional circuit (the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and adjacent structures); Joseph LeDoux (1996) has shown that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in modulating emotions. Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate facial expressions of emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial muscles send signals to the brain that help it recognize the emotion being experienced�smile and feel better. Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion, vary from culture to culture.The cognitive component of emotion involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect�a cognitive appraisal of an event is an important element in emotional experience. Researchers have, in the past, focused primarily on negative emotions, consistent with the bias in the field of psychology toward studying pathology, weakness, and suffering. In recent years, however, a group of psychologists have advocated for positive psychology�increasing research on contentment, well-being, human strength, and positive emotion. The physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional fight-or-flight response. The galvanic skin response (GSR) measures autonomic activation � the device that measures autonomic fluctuations while a person is questioned is called a polygraph or lie detector (really an emotion detector). Polygraph tests measure emotion, which may or may not be due to deceit; they are inaccurate often enough that they are deemed not reliable enough to be submitted as evidence in most types of courtrooms. In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional circuit (the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and adjacent structures); Joseph LeDoux (1996) has shown that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in modulating emotions. Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate facial expressions of emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial muscles send signals to the brain that help it recognize the emotion being experienced�smile and feel better. Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion, vary from culture to culture.

26. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Feel afraid because pulse is racing Cannon-Bard Thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system Schacter�s Two-Factor Theory Look to external cues to decide what to feel Evolutionary Theories Innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation The James-Lange theory of emotion holds that you see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel afraid because your pulse is racing. The Cannon-Bard theory holds that you see a snake, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. Schacter�s Two-Factor Theory holds that you feel autonomic arousal and look around to see why�if there�s a snake you feel fear. Misattribution of arousal can occur when people misinterpret their autonomic arousal. Dutton and Aron (1974) conducted a study where they arranged for young men crossing two bridges to meet an attractive female with a questionnaire in hand�one bridge was 10 feet above a stream, while the other was a swaying, 230 foot suspension bridge. The suspension bridge men called the woman for a date significantly more often than the low bridge men, suggesting misattribution of arousal as attraction rather than fear. Evolutionary theories of emotion assume that emotions are innate reactions that require little cognitive interpretation. Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions blend together to form secondary emotions.The James-Lange theory of emotion holds that you see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel afraid because your pulse is racing. The Cannon-Bard theory holds that you see a snake, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. Schacter�s Two-Factor Theory holds that you feel autonomic arousal and look around to see why�if there�s a snake you feel fear. Misattribution of arousal can occur when people misinterpret their autonomic arousal. Dutton and Aron (1974) conducted a study where they arranged for young men crossing two bridges to meet an attractive female with a questionnaire in hand�one bridge was 10 feet above a stream, while the other was a swaying, 230 foot suspension bridge. The suspension bridge men called the woman for a date significantly more often than the low bridge men, suggesting misattribution of arousal as attraction rather than fear. Evolutionary theories of emotion assume that emotions are innate reactions that require little cognitive interpretation. Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions blend together to form secondary emotions.

29. Happiness Common sense notions incorrect Income, age, parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness largely uncorrelated Physical health, good social relationships, religious faith, and culture modestly correlated Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality strongly correlated Subjective rather than objective reality important Research on happiness indicates that common sense notions about what makes people happy are largely incorrect. Income, age, parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness are largely uncorrelated with happiness. Physical health, good social relationships, religious faith, and culture are modestly correlated with happiness. Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality are the only factors shown to be strongly predictive of happiness. Research indicates that subjective rather than objective reality is what is important in deciding happiness.Research on happiness indicates that common sense notions about what makes people happy are largely incorrect. Income, age, parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness are largely uncorrelated with happiness. Physical health, good social relationships, religious faith, and culture are modestly correlated with happiness. Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality are the only factors shown to be strongly predictive of happiness. Research indicates that subjective rather than objective reality is what is important in deciding happiness.