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Indikator Pembangunan Berkelanjutan ( sumber : Hackett, Ch. 13 )

Indikator Pembangunan Berkelanjutan ( sumber : Hackett, Ch. 13 ). Oleh: Yusman Syaukat Departemen Ekonomi Sumberdaya dan Lingkungan Fakultas Ekonomi dan Manajemen Institut Pertanian Bogor. Pendahuluan.

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Indikator Pembangunan Berkelanjutan ( sumber : Hackett, Ch. 13 )

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  1. Indikator Pembangunan Berkelanjutan (sumber: Hackett, Ch. 13) Oleh: Yusman Syaukat Departemen Ekonomi Sumberdaya dan Lingkungan Fakultas Ekonomi dan Manajemen Institut Pertanian Bogor

  2. Pendahuluan • Pergeserantujuanpembangunandarikonvensionalmenujukepadapembangunanberkelanjutan: integrasiantaratujuanpeningkatankesejahteraanekonomidengantujuan-tujuansosial, politik, danlingkungan • Memperhatikanketerkaitandanketergantunganantaraekonomi, lingkungandankomunitas, sehinggamengarahkepadapencapaiantujuan “well-being of the people” • Sustainable development bisadi level internasional, nasional, regional, maupunlokal

  3. PerkembanganTeori Pembangunan1980’s - 1990’s • Cold war ending + Free market growing: • Economic Development • Economic + Social + Environmental Development: • Sustainable Development • Sustainable Development + Institutional Capacity: • Good Governance • Decentralization + Globalization + Poverty Reduction: • Local Economic Development • Recognition today: • Local Problems Need Local Solutions

  4. Dua Teori Pembangunan Berkelanjutan • Adapertentanganantaraekonomisdanekologisterkaitdenganisu: discount of future B&C, substitutability between man-made capital and natural resources, danearth’s carrying capacity for human • Terdapatduateori (yang bertentangan) tentang PB: • Weak-form Sustainability • Strong-form sustainability • Keduateoritersebutkonsistendenganpengertiandasar PB, namunterdapatperbedaandalamcarapencapaianmandattersebut

  5. Weak-form Sustainability • Teoriinidikembangkandari model pertumbuhanekonomidanperkembanganteknologidalamkonteksketerbatasansumberdaya (limited resources) • Asumsidasar: bahwahuman-made capital dapatmensubstitusikan natural capital and the services provided by ecological system • Perhatian: jikasumberdayaterbatas, dansubstituta-bilitasantarjenissumberdayarelatifrendah, makaper-capita consumption mungkintidakbisaberkelanjutanketikajumlahpendudukmengalamipeningkatan

  6. Weak-form Sustainability (2) • MenurutHartwick Rule, untukmempertahankanconstant per-capita consumption over timemakapendapatansaatinidarihasileksploitasisumberdayaharusdireinvestasikanpadasumberdayaalam (SDA) dansumberdayamanusia (SDM) • Substitusikeduasumberdayatersebutdapatmendapatkanjustifikasi-nyamanakalapeningkatanproduktivitaspada SDM lebihtinggidibandingkanhilangnya/menurunnnyakapasitasproduksi SDA

  7. Strong-form Sustainability • Strong-form sustainability lebihmenekankanpadaaspekekologi: carrying capacity, biodiversity, danbiotic resilience • Berdasarkanteoriini: human capital tidakdapatmenggantikansecaraefektifjasa-jasa yang diselenggarakanolehsistemlingkungan, terutamadariaspek: • Uncertainty – dampakdarimenurunnya SDA dansistemekologi yang komplekstidakdapatdiprediksisecaratepat, sehinggaharusselaluhati-hati (caution) • Irreversibility – sebagianbesartingkahlakumanusiamenimbulkandampakkerusakanterhadap SDA yang bersifat irreversible; sehingga weak-form sustainability tidakmungkintercapai • Scale – berbedadengan weak-form sustainability yang bersifat smooth and continuous cause-and-effect relationships, dalam strong-form sustainability dihadapkanpadamasalahdiscontinuitydanthreshold effects

  8. Weak- and Strong-form Sustainability: Summary • Strong-form sustainability (SfS): tidakadasubstitusisempurnaantarakeduajenissumberdaya • Dari aspekteknis: Weak-form Sust. (WfS) didasarkanpadakonsepsiekonomidimanahubungansebab-akibattersebutbersifat smooth and continues; sementaraSfSdidasarkanpadaprinsipekologidimanakitadihadapkanpadamasalah discontinuity, discreteness, and threshold in cause-and-effect relationships • Basis evaluasi PB: WfS – didasarkanpadapendekatanekonomi, sedangkanSfS – didasarkanpadaprinsipekologi • Tujuan: WfSmempertahankan total kapital (SDA, SDM dan human-made), sedangkanSfSkeberadaanketigakapitaltersebutdipisahkan (diperhatikansecara individual)

  9. Practical Policy Implications • Kebijakan-kebijakan yang sesuaidenganWfSditunjukkanolehWorld Bank, dimana SDA, SDM dan human-made capital dapatbersubstitusisempurna • Kebijakan-kebijakan yang sesuaidenganSfSmengaplikasikanSafe Minimum Standard untukmeyakinkankebaradaanfungsi minimal darisumberdaya, ekosistem, dan biodiversity • SfSmensyaratkanpreserving unique and vital natural capital stock (ecological infrastructure), sehinggadapatmensinkronkanseluruhaktivitasmanusiadenganthe earth’s carrying capacity and the available environmental utilization space

  10. Indikator Weak-form Sustainability • WfS: mempertahankan constant per-capita consumption dengantidakmemperhatikanapakahituberasaldari SDA, SDM atau human-made capital • Hartwick Rule: NNP atau Green GDP Green GDP = GDP – Hotelling rents for non-renewables – total expenditures on pollution control – other direct costs due to environmental degradation • Hotelling rents = opportunity costs of current resource consumption = forgone future consumption value • Steady-state consumption dapatdipertahankanjikaHotelling rents diinvestasikanulangpada SDM dan SDA untukkonsumsimasadatang

  11. Indikator Weak-form Sustainability (2) • Genuine Saving: untukmenentukanapakah total human-made, natural, and other capital stocks are growing, remaining constant, or declining • Genuine Saving (GS): GS = I – r(R-g) – p(e-d) • I = aggregate investment in human and human-made capital • R = harvest rate of renewable resource, g = regeneration rate, danr = per-unit value of natural capital; sehinggar(R-g) = nilaiuang yang harusdisisihkanuntukmempertahankankapasitasproduksisumberdaya (ketika R-g < 0) • e= emission of human waste, d = assimilative capacity of the environment, p = MSC per unit of pollution; sehinggap(e-d) = nilaiuang yang harusdisisihkanuntukmengatasipolusi (ketika e-d <0)

  12. Indikator Weak-form Sustainability (3) • Baik Green GDP maupunGenuine Saving hanyamemasukkanpenyesuaiannilailingkunganterhadapindikatorpendapatankonvensional (GDP), namunbelummemasukkannilai-nilaiaspeksosialdanbudaya • DuaindikatorSosio-ekonomiWfS: • Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) developed by Daly & Cobb (1989) • Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) developed by Cobb et al (1991) • Keduaindikatortersebutmasihdianggapkontroversialdiantaraparaekonom

  13. Indikator Weak-form Sustainability (4) • Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW): per-capita real consumption spending adjusted by some socio-economic and environmental factors: • Deduction for estimates of pollution & environmental damages • Deduction for income inequality • Addition of non-marketed value of household production • Addition of the government expenditures on education, health, road, highway • Deduction for higher costs of urban living • Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI per-capita real consumption spending adjusted by income distribution, and other socio-economic and environmental (B&C) factors

  14. Indikator Strong-form Sustainability • SD terjadihanyajikaelemenkuncidaristoksumberdayaalammampumempertahankanekologisecaraterintegrasi • AdaduaindikatorSfS: • Carrying capacity based on Net Primary Product (NPP) • Ecological Footprint (EF) • NPP menggambarkanbesarnyavegetasi yang dapatdiproduksi per tahundariseluruhwilayahsuatunegara • EF menggambarkan rata-rata konsumsi natural resources per individumanusia. EF lebihkomprehensifdalammenggambarkan human carrying capacity

  15. Indikator Strong-form Sustainability • Weckernagel and Rees (1997): dinegara-negara industry, rata-rata setiaporangmemerlukan 2-5 ha lahanproduktifuntukmenghasilkan material yang merekakonsumsi • Kore a & Jepang: EF sekitar 2 ha/kapita, sedangkandiAmerika & Canada sekitar 5 ha/kapita • Karena rata-rata tingkatdunia EF= 1.5 ha/kapita, sedangkanketersediaansumberdayalahanhanya 0.3 ha/kapita, makaterdapat “sustainability gap” antara DCs dan LDCs • Negara-negaramaju (DCs) menggunakanlebihbanyakstok SDA (mengimpornyadari LDCs) daripadahiduppadasustainable flows

  16. Indikator Umum PB Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) dari UN Conference on Environment and Development – pada tahun 2006 telah menyusun indikator SD yang terdiri dari tema-tema berikut dan secara keseluruhan mencakup 50 indikator:

  17. Referensi • Hackett, Steven C. 1998. Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: Theory, Policy, and the Sustainable Society. M.E. Sharpe, New York. (Chapter 13) • United Nations. 2007. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies (third edition). The United Nations, New York.

  18. TerimaKasih

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