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RESTORASI HUTAN

RESTORASI HUTAN. .RESTORASI HUTAN. Pemahaman “ struktur hutan dan fungsi hutan ” sangat penting karena kerusakan hutan biasanya berkaitan dengan struktur dan fungsi hutan .

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RESTORASI HUTAN

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  1. RESTORASI HUTAN

  2. .RESTORASI HUTAN Pemahaman “strukturhutandanfungsihutan” sangatpentingkarenakerusakanhutanbiasanyaberkaitandenganstrukturdanfungsihutan. Hutan yang rusakmempunyaistrukturtegakan yang berbedadengankondisiawalnya, sehinggafungsihutantersebutakanterganggu. Strukturhutanberkaitaneratdenganfungsihutan, suatustrukturhutanakanmembentukhutan yang memilikifungsi yang berbeda-beda, yaitukonsevasi, produksiataulindung. Kegiatanrestorasihutanditujukanuntukmemulihkankembalistrukturtegakansepertikondisiawalnyasehinggakawasanhutantersebutdapatmenjalankanfungsinyasepertifungsiawalnya. Parameter strukturtegakana.l. : kekayaanjenis, kerapatan, distribusi, dominasi, asosiasi, crown density. Restorasihutanbiasanyaberupakegiatanreklamasi (melibatkankegiatan civil engineering, berhubungandenganpemulihankondisitanah) danrevegetasi (mengembalikanpohon, shrub, dll). “Restorasi” dapatdidefinisikansebagaiupayamemperbaikiataumemulihkankondisilahan yang rusakdenganmembentukstrukturdanfungsinyasesuai (mendekati) dengankondisiawal. Diunduhdari: http://wahyukdephut.wordpress.com/2010/02/23/konsep-restorasi/……….. 28/12/2012

  3. .PENANAMAN-HUTAN KEMBALI .Empatstrategipenanamanhutankembalitersebutadalah: Membiarkanwilayahhutantidakterganggu agar prosesregenerasialamidapatberlangsung (untukwilayahhutan yang memilikikeragamanhayatidantutupanvegetasibaik). Membanturegenerasialami (memotongjenistumbuhanpengganggutertentu agar jenis-jenispohonpentingdapattumbuh). Penanamandenganpengayaan (ketikakelompokjenistertentutelahhilang, jenispohontertentuakanditanam agar tercipta habitat yang lebihberagam). Penanamanjeniskunci (metodeinidikembangkanoleh FORRU untukwilayah yang rusakparahdimanabeberapajeniskuncitertentudipilihdanditanamkarenapohon-pohoninidapatmenarikberbagaijenissatwapenyebarbiji-bijian. Diunduhdari: http://harapanrainforest.org/id/restorasi-hutan……….. 28/12/2012

  4. . . Pada saat ini, tim restorasi hutan telah terlibat dalam berbagai tugas meliputi: Pengembangan keterampilan dan kapasitas yang diperlukan di masa mendatang. MelaksanakaninventarisasijenispohondanmencatatkelimpahannyadidalamkawasanHarapan Rainforest. Pemantauanfenologi (waktuberbungadanberbuah) berbagaijenispohondiwilayahhutanberbeda. Penggumpulanbiji-bijianuntukdiitanamdifasilitaspembibitan. Perawatandanpemantauanbijidanbenih yang ditumbuhkandifasilitaspembibitan. Penanamanbibitdarifasilitaspembibitanpada plot tertentudalamkawasan. Diunduhdari: http://harapanrainforest.org/id/restorasi-hutan……….. 28/12/2012

  5. .RESTORASI EKOSISTEM HUTAN Pemerintah Indonesia mencanangkanpengelolaankawasanhutanmelaluiskemarestorasiekosistemhutanseluas 3,3 jutahektar. Adaempatstrategibesardalamkonseprestorasiekosistemhutantersebut: Memilihtanaman yang mudahdancepattumbuhpadalahankritis, memilikistrukturtajuk yang baiksebagaipenahan air hujandanmengembalikanunsurharatanah yang sudahktitis. Strategikedua, setelahterealisasimelakukanpenanamantanamanaslipadakawasan yang direstorasi. Artinya, tanamanaslipadakawasan yang direstorasiditanamkembalidanituakanlebihmudahsebabkondisilahansudahtidakkritislagimakatingkatkeberhasilantumbuhnyatanamanaslicenderungberhasil. Strategiketiga, setelahtanamanaslitumbuhmakaharusmembiarkanwilayahrestorasiekosistemhutantidakdigangguapalagiditebang agar prosesregenerasialamidapatberlangsung normal sehingganantinyamemilikikeragamanhayatidantutupanvegetasibaik. Strategikeempat, membanturegenerasialamitanamanaslidengancaramemotongjenistumbuhanpengganggutertentu agar jenis-jenispohonpentingdapattumbuhdenganbaik. Melakukanpenanamandenganpengayaanjenistanamantertentu yang telahhilang, jenistanamanataupohontertentu yang telahhilangharusditanamtermasukmendatangkansatwa (hewan) yang selamainiadadikawasan yang direstorasisehinggatercipta habitat yang lebihberagam. Diunduhdari: http://hutan-tersisa.blogspot.com/2011/08/restorasi-hutan.html……….. 28/12/2012

  6. .HPH RESTORASI EKOSISTEM Menhuttelahmenerbitkansuratkeputusanpencadanganhakpengusahaanhutan (HPH) restorasiekosistemseluas 2,5 jutahektarsebagaibagiansisteminovasikehutanantahun 2010-2014.   HPH restorasiekosistem DIHARAPKAN menjadisolusipenurunanemisi gas rumahkacadarisektorkehutanan, sekaligusmenciptakanlapangankerjadanusaha. Jadi, business for environment dapatdirealisasikan, untukpanganatauenergi. HPH restorasiekosistemmerupakanbentukbisniskehutanan yang unikkarena investor tidakbolehmengambilhasilhutankayu. Pemerintahmemberikonsesisatukawasanhutanterdegradasikepada investor yang akanmembenahikerusakandenganmenanamitanamanaslilokallalumengambilkeuntungandarihasilhutanbukankayu, seperti air, madu, danekowisata. Kemenhuttelahmenerimapermohonan 40 unit HPH restorasiekosistemseluas 3.942.512 hektar. Sejauhini, Kemenhuttelahmenerbitkan 3 unit HPH ekosistemrestorasiseluas 185.005 hektar yang berlokasidi Jambi (46.385 hektar), Sumatera Selatan (52.170 hektar), dan Kalimantan Timur (86.450 hektar). Kemhuttengahmemprosespenerbitansuratkeputusanuntuk 4 unit lainnyaseluas 251.960 hektardantelahmenilaikesiapan 2 unit seluas 246.755 hektar. Sebenarnya, banyak investor inginmemperoleh HPH restorasiekosistem, tetapipemerintah ha rusmenolakpermohonan 22 unit seluas 2.638.535 hektarkarenatidakmemenuhikriteria. HPH restorasiharusmenjadi program unggulanKemenhut. Program inimenunjukkankondisihutanalam Indonesia yang harusdipulihkankembali. Akantetapi, inovasiinibukanhalmudah. Kemenhutharusmemberiinsentifkhususuntukmendukungkesinambunganinvestasi HPH restorasi.   Perlujugainovasimembangun HPH restorasiberbasismasyarakat. Diunduhdari: http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/09/28/22461455/2.5.Juta.Hektar.Hutan.Produksi.untuk.Restorasi……….. 28/12/2012

  7. KONSEP RESTORASI HUTAN TERPADU Kawasanhutan yang dapatdimohonuntuk areal restorasiekosistemdiutamakanpadahutanproduksi yang tidakproduktifdandicadangkanatauditunjukolehmenterikehutanan. SalahsatubentukpemulihanekosistemhutanhinggaberfungsisebagaimanamestinyadihutanalamproduksiadalahmelaluiIzin Usaha PemanfaatanHasilHutanKayuRestorasiEkosistem (IUPHHK-RE).IUPHHK-RE merupakanizinusaha yang diberikanuntukmembangunkawasandalamhutanalampadahutanproduksi yang memilikiekosistempentingsehinggadapatdipertahankanfungsidanketerwakilannya.Izinusaharestorasiini, dilakukanuntukmempertahankanfungsihutansehinggaterpeliharakeberadaannyadisampingmengoptimalkanjasalingkungandanjasakawasanpada areal restorasi. Kawasanhutan yang dapatdimohonuntuk areal restorasiekosistemdiutamakanpadahutanproduksi yang tidakproduktifdandicadangkanatauditunjukolehmenterikehutanan. Read more: IUPHHK-RE: KonsepRestorasiHutanTerpadu Diunduhdari: http://wartapedia.com/lingkungan/konservasi/7343-iuphhk-re-konsep-restorasi-hutan-terpadu.html……….. 28/12/2012

  8. . Restorasiekosistemadalahupayauntukmengembalikanunsurhayati (flora dan fauna) sertaunsur non hayati (tanahdan air) padasuatukawasandenganjenisasli, sehinggatercapaikeseimbanganhayatidanekosistemnya. . IUPHHK restorasiekosistemdalamhutanalamadalahizinusaha yang diberikanuntukmembangunkawasandalamhutanalampadahutanproduksi yang memilikiekosistempentingsehinggadapatdipertahankanfungsidanketerwakilannyamelaluikegiatanpemeliharaan, perlindungandanpemulihanekosistemhutantermasukpenanaman, pengayaan, penjarangan, penangkaransatwa, pelepasliaran flora dan fauna untukmengembalikanunsurhayati (flora dan fauna) sertaunsur non hayati (tanah, iklimdantopografi) padasuatukawasankepadajenis yang asli, sehinggatercapaikeseimbanganhayatidanekosistemnya. Sistemsilvikulturadalahsistembudidayahutanatausistemteknikbercocoktanamanhutanmulaidarimemilihbenihataubibit, menyemai, menanam, memeliharatanamandanmemanen. Diunduhdari: http://kehutanan.kalbarprov.go.id/joomla15/index.php?option=com……….. 28/12/2012

  9. . Restorasihutanmerupakanprosespengkondisianekosistem (tanah, vegetasi, dankehidupan liar) untukmencapaipoladanprofil yang serupadengankondisipadasaatsebelumterganggukomposisi, struktur, danfungsinya. Restorasidilakukansebagaiupayauntukmemaksimalkankonservasikaragamanhayatidanfungsiekosistem. Pohon yang sesuaiharusmemilikibeberapakriteria yang sesuai, yaitusemaidapatberadaptasidenganmudahditempatterbuka, merupakanspesies yang dapattumbuhdengancepat, sertaspesies yang dapatberkompetisidenganrumput liar danjenis-jenisgulmalainnya. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  10. .. HutanHarapan, PionirRestorasiHutan Di Dunia HutanHarapanmerupakanhutanrestorasipertamadi Indonesia danjugapionirrestorasihutandidunia. Restorasimerupakanupayauntukmengembalikankondisihutan yang sudahrusakmenjadihutanlebatsepertisediakala. Hal inimembutuhkanwaktusedikitnya 30 sampai 60 tahun. Selamaperiodetersebuttidakdilakukanpenebanganpohon. Setelahmelalui survey danproses yang panjangselama 10 tahun, akhirnya PT RestorasiEkosistem Indonesia (PT REKI) mendapatkanhakkonsesipenuhuntukmengelolaHutanHarapanseluassekitar 100.000 hektar (ha). “Untukmelakukanrestorasiekosistemhutanmemangtidakgampang, sampaisaatiniusaharestorasibelumbisamenghasilkankeuntungan, disisi lain banyakkendalabesar yang menghadangdidepanmata, sepertiparaperambahhutan, illegal logging, kondisihutandanlahankritis yang rusakparah, dandiperlukanbiayaoperasional yang sangatbesarsertakomitmen yang tinggi,” paparDoktorBiologilulusanJermanini. Menterikehutanan, ZulkifliHasan, menyatakanbahwapihaknyatelahmenargetkan 300.000 ha untukizinrestorasihutanproduksidantakproduktiftahun 2010 ini. Target itu, katadia, menjadibagiandariRencanaStrategisKementerianKehutanan 2010-2014 yang ditargetkan 2,5 juta ha. Diunduhdari: http://vetonews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6907:hutan-h……….. 28/12/2012

  11. Forest restoration . Forest restoration is defined as “actions to re-instate ecological processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure, ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those typical of climax forest”[1] i.e. the end-stage of natural forest succession. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans(more explanation here). Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration. Since climate is a major factor that determines climax forest composition, global climate change may result in changing restoration aims.[2] Forest restoration is a specialized form of reforestation, but it differs from conventional tree plantations in that its primary goals are biodiversity recovery and environmental protection Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_restoration ……….. 28/12/2012

  12. . . Scope Forest restoration may include simply protecting remnant vegetation (fire prevention, cattle exclusion etc.) or more active interventions to accelerate natural regeneration,[5] as well as tree planting and/or sowing seeds (direct seeding) of species characteristic of the target ecosystem. Tree species planted (or encouraged to establish) are those that are typical of, or provide a critical ecological function in, the target ecosystem. However, wherever people live in or near restoration sites, restoration projects often include economic species amongst the planted trees, to yield subsistence or cash-generating products. Forest restoration is an inclusive process, which depends on collaboration among a wide range of stakeholders including local communities, government officials, non-government organizations, scientists and funding agencies. Its ecological success is measured in terms of increased biological diversity, biomass, primary productivity, soil organic matter and water-holding capacity, as well as the return of rare and keystone species, characteristic of the target ecosystem. Economic indices of success include the value of forest products and ecological services generated (e.g. watershed protection, carbon storage etc.), which ultimately contribute towards poverty reduction. Payments for such ecological services (PES) and forest products can provide strong incentives for local people to implement restoration projects. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  13. . Where is forest restoration appropriate? Forest restoration is appropriate wherever biodiversity recovery is one of the main goals of reforestation, such as for wildlife conservation, environmental protection, eco-tourism or to supply a wide variety of forest products to local communities. Forests can be restored in a wide range of circumstances, but degraded sites within protected areas are a high priority, especially where some climax forest remains as a seed source within the landscape. Even in protected areas, there are often large deforested sites: logged over areas or sites formerly cleared for agriculture. If protected areas are to act as Earth’s last wildlife refuges, restoration of such areas will be needed.[6][7] Many restoration projects are now being implemented under the umbrella of “forest landscape restoration” (FLR),[8] defined as a “planned process to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded landscapes”. FLR recognizes that forest restoration has social and economic functions. It aims to achieve the best possible compromise between meeting both conservation goals and the needs of rural communities.[9] As human pressure on landscapes increases, forest restoration will most commonly be practiced within a mosaic of other forms of forest management, to meet the economic needs of local people. 8. Mansourian, S., D. Vallauri, and N. Dudley (eds.) (in co-operation with WWF International), 2005. Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting Trees. Springer, New York 9. Reitbergen-McCraken, J., S. Maginnis A. Sarre, 2007. The Forest Landscape Restoration Handbook. Earthscan, London, 175 pp. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  14. . Is tree planting essential to restore forest ecosystems? Not always. A lot can be achieved by studying how forests regenerate naturally, identifying the factors that limit regeneration and devising methods to overcome them. These can include weeding and adding fertilizer around natural tree seedlings, preventing fire, removing cattle and so on. This is "accelerated" or "assisted" natural regeneration.[10] It is simple and cost-effective, but it can only operate on trees that are already present, mostly light-loving pioneer species. Such tree species are not usually those that comprise climax forests, but they can foster recolonization of the site by shade-tolerant climax forest tree species, via natural seed dispersal from remnant forest. Because this is a slow process, biodiversity recovery can usually be accelerated by planting some climax forest tree species, especially large-seeded, poorly dispersed species. It is not feasible to plant all the tree species that may have formerly grown in the original primary forest and it is usually unnecessary to do so, if the framework species method[11][12] can be used. 10. Shono, K., E. A. Cadaweng and P. B. Durst, 2007. Application of Assisted Natural Regeneration to Restore Degraded Tropical Forestlands. Restoration Ecology, 15(4): 620–626. 11. Elliott S, Navakitbumrung P, Kuarak C, Zankum S, Anusarnsunthorn V, Blakesley D, 2003. Selecting framework tree species for restoring seasonally dry tropical forests in northern Thailand based on field performance. For Ecol Manage 184:177-191 12. Goosem, S. and N. I. J. Tucker, 1995. Repairing the Rainforest. Wet Tropics Management Authority, Cairns, Australia. Pp 72. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  15. Reforestation Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation.[1] Reforestation can be used to improve the quality of human life by soaking up pollution and dust from the air, rebuild natural habitats and ecosystems, mitigate global warming since forests facilitate biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and harvest for resources, particularly timber. The term reforestation is similar to afforestation, the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise removed at some point in the past. Sometimes the term re-afforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area. Special tools, e.g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforestation ……….. 28/12/2012

  16. . Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. In silviculture the activity is known as reforestation, or afforestation, depending on whether the area being planted has or has not recently been forested. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire or disease or insects. Tree planting is carried out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may differ widely across nations and regions and among individual reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest science, and if performed properly can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale destruction of old growth forests, but a planted forest rarely replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural forest.[citation needed] Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, tree planting can be used as a geoengineering technique to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treeplanting ……….. 28/12/2012

  17. . Primary production is the production of organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide. It may occur through the process of photosynthesis, using light as a source of energy, or chemosynthesis, using the oxidation or reduction of chemical compounds as a source of energy. Almost all life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregionsalgae are primarily responsible. Primary production is distinguished as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity ……….. 28/12/2012

  18. . . Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules. Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The following two equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom): CO2 + H2O + light CH2O + O2 CO2 + O2 + 4 H2S CH2O + 4 S + 3 H2O In both cases, the end point is reducedcarbohydrate (CH2O), typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars. These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  19. . . GPP and NPP Gross primary production (GPP) is the rate at which an ecosystem's producers capture and store a given amount of chemical energy as biomass in a given length of time. Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration").[1] The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP). NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants] Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Some net primary production goes toward growth and reproduction of primary producers, while some is consumed by herbivores. Both gross and net primary production are in units of mass / area / time. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C/m2/yr) is most often used as the unit of measurement. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  20. .terrestrial production . On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small fraction coming from algae and non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts. Before the evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a more significant role. Primary production on land is a function of many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature (the latter covaries to an extent with light, the source of energy for photosynthesis). While plants cover much of the Earth's surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally water and light) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions. Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration. The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants. Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineralnutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain. Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants (the majority of plant species). Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity ……….. 28/12/2012

  21. keystone species . A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.[1] Such species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community. The role that a keystone species plays in its ecosystem is analogous to the role of a keystone in an arch. While the keystone is under the least pressure of any of the stones in an arch, the arch still collapses without it. Similarly, an ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is removed, even though that species was a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. It has become a very popular concept in conservation biology. A classic keystone species is a small predator that prevents a particular herbivorous species from eliminating dominant plant species. Since the prey numbers are low, the keystone predator numbers can be even lower and still be effective. Yet without the predators, the herbivorous prey would explode in numbers, wipe out the dominant plants, and dramatically alter the character of the ecosystem. The exact scenario changes in each example, but the central idea remains that through a chain of interactions, a non-abundant species has an out-sized impact on ecosystem functions. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_species ……….. 28/12/2012

  22. .. Payments for ecosystem services (PES), . Payments for ecosystem services (PES), also known as payments for environmental services (or benefits), is the practice of offering incentives to farmers or landowners in exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of ecological service. They have been defined as "a transparent system for the additional provision of environmental services through conditional payments to voluntary providers."[1] These programmes promote the conservation of natural resources in the marketplace. Ecosystem services have no standardized definition but might broadly be called “the benefits of nature to households, communities, and economies”[2] or, more simply, “the good things nature does."[3] Twenty-four specific ecosystem services were identified and assessed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a 2005 UN-sponsored report designed to assess the state of the world's ecosystems. The report defined the broad categories of ecosystem services as food production (in the form of crops, livestock, capture fisheries, aquaculture, and wild foods), fiber (in the form of timber, cotton, hemp, and silk), geneticresources (biochemicals, naturalmedicines, and pharmaceuticals), fresh water, air qualityregulation, climateregulation, waterregulation, erosionregulation, water purification and waste treatment, diseaseregulation, pestregulation, pollination, natural hazardregulation, and cultural services (including spiritual, religious, and aestheticvalues, recreation and ecotourism).[4] Notably, however, there is a “big three” among these 24 services which are currently receiving the most money and interest worldwide. These are climate change mitigation, watershed services and biodiversity conservation, and demand for these services in particular is predicted to continue to grow as time goes on.[5] One seminal 1997 Nature magazine article estimated the annual value of global ecological benefits at $33 trillion, a number nearly twice the then global gross product. Diunduhdari: ……….. 28/12/2012

  23. Forest landscape restoration Forest landscape restoration or FLR is defined as “a planned process to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded landscapes”.[1] It comprises tools and procedures to integrate site-level forest restoration actions with desirable landscape-level objectives, which are decided upon via various participatory mechanisms among stakeholders. The concept has grown out of collaboration among some of the world's major international conservation organizations including the International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). The concept of FLR was conceived to bring about compromises between meeting the needs of both humans and wildlife, by restoring a range of forest functions at the landscape level. It includes actions to strengthen the resilience and ecological integrity of landscapes and thereby keep future management options open. The participation of local communities is central to the concept, because they play a critical role in shaping the landscape and gain significant benefits from restored forest resources. Therefore, FLR activities are inclusive and participatory. Reitbergen-McCraken, J., S. Maginnis A. Sarre, 2007. The Forest Landscape Restoration Handbook. Earthscan, London, 175 pp Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration ……….. 28/12/2012

  24. . • . Desirable outcomes of FLR • The desirable outcomes of an FLR program usually comprise a combination of the following, depending on local needs and aspirations: • identification of the root causes of forest degradation and prevention of further deforestation, • positive engagement of people in the planning of forest restoration, resolution of land-use conflicts and agreement on benefit-sharing systems, • compromises over land-use trade-offs that are acceptable to the majority of stakeholders, • a repository of biological diversity of both local and global value, • delivery of a range of utilitarian benefits to local communities including: • a reliable supply of clean water, • environmental protection particularly watershed services (e.g. reduced soil erosion, lower landslide risk, flood/drought mitigation etc.), • a sustainable supply of a diverse range of forest products including foods, medicines, firewood etc., • monetary income from various sources e.g. ecotourism, carbon trading via the REDD+ mechanism and from payments for other environmental services (PES)[1] • Mansourian, S., D. Vallauri, and N. , Dudley (eds.) (in co-operation with WWF International), Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting Trees. Springer, New York. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration……….. 28/12/2012

  25. FLR actions FLR combines several existing principles and techniques of development, conservation and natural resource management, such as landscape character assessment, participatory rural appraisal, adaptive management etc. within a clear and consistent evaluation and learning framework. An FLR program may comprise various forestry practices on different sites within the landscape, depending on local environmental and socioeconomic factors. These may include protection and management of secondary and degraded primary forests, standard forest restoration techniques such as "assisted" or "accelerated" natural regeneration (ANR) and the planting of framework tree species to restore degraded areas, as well as conventional tree plantations and agroforestry systems to meet more immediate monetary needs [1] Elliott, S., D. Blakesley and K. Hardwick, in press. Restoring Tropical Forests: a Practical Guide. Kew Publications, London Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration……….. 28/12/2012

  26. . Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  27. WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION??? Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  28. What is Ecological Restoration? The Society of Ecological Restoration (SER) defines ecological restoration in its mission statement as “the process of assisting the recovery and management of ecological integrity. Ecological integrity includes a critical range of variability in biodiversity, ecological processes and structures, regional and historical context, and sustainable cultural practices” (Society for Ecological Restoration 1996). Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  29. Ecological Restoration Need to identify ecological restoration goal, identify the restoration potential of a site, how to conduct the restoration, and how to evaluate the success of restoration. *REFERENCE CONDITIONS Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  30. Reference Conditions The range of historical or natural variability in ecological structures and processes that reflect evolutionary history, disturbance regimes, and abiotic and biotic conditions (Covington et al. 1997). Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  31. HOW DO YOU DETERMINE REFERENCE CONDITIONS??? Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  32. PONDEROSA PINE • Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) trees grow in every state found west of the Great Plains • In Colorado, ponderosa pine trees are commonly found on mesas to the montane from 5,000-9000 ft • In the San Juan Mountains, pure stands of ponderosa pine can be found on sandstone substrates from 6,500-8,000 ft Drawing by Robert Petty in “Graced by Pines” 1994 Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  33. WRITTEN RECORDS Lt. Edward Beale, 1857 (northern Arizona) “A vast forest of gigantic pines, intersected frequently with open glades, sprinkled all over with mountains, meadows, and wide savannas, and covered with the richest grasses, was traversed by our party for many days.” C. DuBois, 1903 (San Juan Mountains) “Throughout the [“bull” or ponderosa pine] type there is good cattle range, consisting of blue-stem grass beneath the trees and bunch grass in the parks. The underbrush is very heavy, chiefly oak brush, choke-cherry, scarlett thorn, and wild rose. Reproduction of bull pine is poor.” Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  34. OTHER CONTEMPORARY DATA *SPECIES COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE *SOIL SEED BANK *BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC SOIL CHARACTERISTICS *DEAD/DOWN WOODY MATERIALS *TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  35. REFERENCE CONDITIONS SOUTHWESTERN PONDEROSA PINE Fire- Key disturbance that regulates ponderosa pine forests *Low intensity fires (2-20 year interval) *Large diameter trees interspersed with grassy meadows *Diverse, productive herbaceous understory Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  36. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  37. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  38. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  39. WHO USES THIS INFORMATION? Governmental Agencies-National Park Service, Forest Service, BLM State and Local Government- e.g., Montezuma County (Ponderosa Pines Project), Boulder Mountain Parks Conservation Organizations-The Nature Conservancy, Grand Canyon Forest Trust General Public-e.g., where to build a house (fire-prone environment, floodplain, etc.), where to recreate, forming opinions on public land management actions Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  40. GOALS FOR LECTURE • You will be able to define ecological restoration. • You will be able to define reference conditions and how reference conditions are determined. • You will be able to discuss reference conditions in the context of southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  41. Tree Canopy Data for the Gus Pearson Natural Area, Arizona for 1876 and 1990 Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  42. Components of Ecological Restoration Four Main Components: 1) Cultural * Native Americans played an important role in the evolutionary history of many ecosystems through their interactions with the natural world. * Native Americans used fire as a tool for hunting, promoting/discouraging specific plant species which differs from lightning fires in seasonality, frequency, and intensity. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  43. Components of Ecological Restoration Four Main Components: 2) Economical * How much will the restoration project cost to plan, implement, and monitor? * What are the economical benefits from restoration (immediate and long-term)? Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  44. Components of Ecological Restoration Four Main Components: 3) Social * Need to look at restoration as an outcome of complex interactions between nature and society and divergent social and political views within society. * Need to develop common ground among all participants when identifying and planning restoration projects. Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  45. Components of Ecological Restoration Four Main Components: 4) Ecological * Need to identify ecological restoration goal, identify the restoration potential of a site, how to conduct the restoration, and how to evaluate the success of restoration. * Need to identify a spatial and temporal context for ecological restoration. *REFERENCE CONDITIONS Diunduhdari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ……….. 28/12/2012

  46. . Diunduhdari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012

  47. Restoration Ecology • Due to the severe impact humans have already inflicted on the landscape and the expensive cost of real estate, restoring a landscape may be more feasible than other options • This is a relatively new field and many advances have been made • However, we rarely restore something to its former glory and functionality Diunduhdari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012

  48. Restoration Ecology • May be able to trace restoration back to Aldo Leopold in the 1930’s at the UW arboretum (120 ha forest) • RE draws upon many disciplines and subdisciplines of the natural sciences including landscape ecology, hydrology, geomorphology, soil science, geochemistry, animal behavior, pop biology, theoretical biology, invasion ecology and evolutionary ecol Diunduhdari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012

  49. Restoration Ecology • Specifically, RE is “the process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous, historic ecosystem” • The goal is to emulate the structure, function, diversity and dynamics of the specific ecosystem • Or…moving a degraded system back towards one of greater structural and functional diversity Diunduhdari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012

  50. Restoration Ecology • It is an iterative process: • 1) examines preexisting, historic, and current reference conditions prior to designing the plan • 2) developing a restoration plan • 3) obtain permits, do the work • 4) implementing plan, although complex (e.g. hydrology, soil, plant & animal responses) • 5) monitoring the site Diunduhdari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012

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