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Syntax

Syntax. Lecture 5: Complementisers and Interrogatives. Recap. Every word is a head. Every head projects a phrase. Every phrase has the same basic structure Complements are restricted by the head Thematic heads have a number of possible complements

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Syntax

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  1. Syntax Lecture 5: Complementisers and Interrogatives

  2. Recap • Every word is a head. • Every head projects a phrase. • Every phrase has the same basic structure • Complements are restricted by the head • Thematic heads have a number of possible complements • Functional heads only have one kind of complement • Specifiers are not restricted by the head • Specifiers of thematic heads contain one of the ‘arguments’ of the head. • Specifiers of functional heads are empty and act as the landing site for moved elements

  3. Complementisers • Complementisers are a small category consisting of three words: • that, for, if • The complementiser always precedes the clause (IP) • As it is a functional head and functional heads take only one kind of complement, it looks as though the IP is the complement of the complementiser

  4. The CP

  5. Complementisers introduce different clauses • Complementisers are not interchangeable: • I think [that he left] \*[for\if he left] • I wish [for him to leave] \*[that\if him to leave] • I asked [if he left] \*[that\for he left] • that and if both introduce finite clauses (IP headed by a modal or tense) • for introduces an infinitival clause (IP headed by to)

  6. Different complementisers

  7. The difference between that and if • Verbs such as ask, wonder, enquire, etc. take interrogative clause complements (= questions): • I asked [why he left] • I wonder [if he cared] • Verbs such as say, think, declare, etc. take declarative clause complements (= statements) • I said [he left] • I think [that he left] • if introduces interrogative sentences and that introduces declarative sentences

  8. Complementisers

  9. The logical organisation of the sentence The verb phrase concerns the ‘thematic structure’ of a sentence (who does what to who) The IP concerns the tense and modality of the sentence (a different kind of meaning to thematic meaning) The CP concerns the force of the sentence (how the sentence is used)

  10. The logical organisation of the sentence

  11. The specifier of the CP • We expect the specifier of the CP to be underlyingly empty, but may be the landing site of a movement • We will start by considering embedded interrogatives • I asked [if John met Mary] • I wonder [who John met --] • The first sentence has a complementiser before the IP and the second has who

  12. Wh-phrases • Words such as who, what, where, why, which, how, etc. are not complementisers • They are pronouns which head a DP, some of which contain NPs • [DP who] likes Mary?  [DP he] likes Mary • [DP which [NP picture of Mary]] do you like? [DP that [NP picture of Mary]] • Therefore they cannot sit in the complementiser position • Complementisers are heads (words) • These things are phrases (wh-phrases)

  13. The position of a wh-phrase • I wonder [who John will meet] • The wh-phrase cannot be in the specifier of IP as this position is already filled by the subject • There is no complementiser, but the wh-phrase cannot be in the complementiser position because it is a phrase • The only phrasal position which precedes the subject is the specifier of CP • So we have to assume that there is a complementiser there but it is not pronounced

  14. wh-phrases are specifiers of CP

  15. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]]

  16. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]] I know [CP that [IP John met her]]

  17. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]] I know [CP that [IP John met her]] • I asked [CP who [IP -- met Mary]

  18. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]] I know [CP that [IP John met her]] • I asked [CP who [IP -- met Mary] He answered [CP that [IPhe met Mary]]

  19. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]] I know [CP that [IP John met her]] • I asked [CP who [IP -- met Mary] He answered [CP that [IPhe met Mary]] • I don’t know [CP when [IP John met Mary]]

  20. What is the origin of a wh-phrase? • Wh-phrases are associated with positions inside the IP • I wonder [CP who [IP John met --]] I know [CP that [IP John met her]] • I asked [CP who [IP -- met Mary] He answered [CP that [IPhe met Mary]] • I don’t know [CP when [IP John met Mary]] They said [CP that [IP John met Mary yesterday]]

  21. Wh-movement So wh-phrases originate inside IP and then moveto the specifier of CP This means that the specifier of CP, like other specifiers of functional heads, is underlyingly empty so that things can move into it

  22. Movements in a wh-clause

  23. Main clause interrogatives • Who will John meet? • The subject moves to the specifier of IP • The wh-phrase moves to the specifier of the CP • But the inflection is between the wh-phrase and the subject! • The inflection is in front of the subject in other questions which don’t involve wh-movement • Will John meet Mary • So this seems to be an independent movement • Subject-auxiliary inversion

  24. Inversion • An inverted auxiliary is a word in a position in front of the subject • The C position is a word position in front of the subject • Does the inflection move to C? • This would predict that inverted auxiliaries and complementisers are in complementary distribution • But • We don’t get complementisers in main clauses • * that John left / I think [that John left] • We don’t get inversion in embedded clauses • I don’t know [ if John will meet Mary]/ *[ will John meet Mary]

  25. Conditional clauses • Fortunately, there are (non-interrogative) clauses where we can get a complementiser or an inverted auxiliary. The conditional clause: • [ If he should find out], then I’ll be in trouble • [ Should he find out], then I’ll be in trouble • The fact that we cannot have both an inverted auxiliary and a complementiser shows that the auxiliary is in the complementiser position: • * [ if should he find out] …

  26. Movements in a main interrogative clause

  27. Conclusion • The CP is the highest level of the clause • It concerns the force of the sentence • It houses complementisers which determine the force of the sentence • that/for = declarative • if = interrogative • The specifier of CP is underlyingly empty, but acts as the landing site for wh-phrases moved from inside IP • The head position of the main clause CP is the landing site of the moved inflectional head = auxiliary inversion.

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