Argument and Logic

1. Argument and Logic

2. Important Terms • Claim (also assertion or, as we usually call it, the thesis or topic sentence) • Data or Proof • Warrant – “Why this is important;” the belief or value or major premise on which the claim is based • Concession/Refutation

3. The “Classical” Arrangement • Introduction • Narration (background information) • Confirmation (major part of text; prove your claim/thesis) • Refutation (refutes the opponent’s claim/thesis) • Conclusion

4. Logos, Pathos, Ethos • Logical appeal presents data, facts, experts, etc. to support your claim • Emotional appeal manipulates the reader’s/audience’s emotions • Ethical appeal convinces the reader/audience that you know what you’re talking about

5. Logos is primarily developed, then, through modes of discourse (aka. Rhetorical strategies) supported by data. • Pathos is primarily developed by the discriminating use of schemes and tropes. • Ethos is primarily developed by the writer/speaker’s background, expertise, etc. • BUT THESE OVERLAP, TOO!

6. For example, which is more inspiring? This… • “I believe that people shouldn’t be judges because of who they are. People should judge others on their actions instead.” • - Mrs. Martin

7. Or this? • “I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.” • - Martin Luther King, Jr.

8. What’s the difference? • Neither have any real logical appeal • My quote, however, also has no emotional appeal • King’s quote has connotation (innocence of childhood, reference to the American Dream, etc.) and antithesis w/consonance • And…it’s Martin Luther King, Jr.!

9. Logic • Strong arguments can be analyzed and broken down to see if they are true. • One way to do this is with a syllogism.

10. Syllogism Components • Major premise: This is a general truth • Minor premise: This is a “sub-category of the major premise • Conclusion: If both the major and minor premise are true, the conclusion should be logical deduction

11. Example • Major premise: All men are mortal. • Minor premise: Socrates is a man. • Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

12. Toulmin Model • Because ________, therefore _________, since _________. • Because Socrates is a man, therefore he is mortal, since all men are mortal.

13. Errors in Logic When you have an error in your syllogism—an error in your logic—you have created a logical fallacy. Logical fallacies are BAD! (And there are a lot of them…)

14. Slippery Slope • Predicting without justification that one step in a process will lead unavoidably to a second (usually undesirable) step • Ex: “If we pass health care reform, the next thing you know government bureaucrats will be pulling the plug on Grandma.”

15. Hasty Generalization • Drawing conclusions from insufficient evidence • Very common in student writing • Ex: 19 Muslims conducted the 9/11 attacks; therefore, all Muslims are terrorists

16. Post Hoc • Because “B” happened after “A,” “A” caused “B” • Very common in cause/effect student essays • EX: “I ate Cheezits and listened to the Backstreet Boys before my last game and we won; therefore, eating Cheezits and listening to the Backstreet Boys caused me to play better.”

17. Begging the Question • AKA “circular reasoning” • The argument assumes to be true what it is supposed to be proving • EX: “Capital punishment is wrong because it is immoral.” • Very common in student writing

18. Either/Or Fallacy • Presenting only two (usually black and white) choices when there may be other options (shades of gray) • EX: If you support prayer in schools, you're a fundamental extremist.

19. Ad Hominem • “To the Man” • Attacking the person instead of their argument • "She asserts that we need more military spending, but that is false, since she is only saying it because she is a Republican."

20. Ad Populum • Appeal to popular opinion • EX: “It's ok because everyone is doing it” • Also called “bandwagon”

21. Red Herring • This is the “Hey, look! There's a distraction!” fallacy • It attempts to “win” an argument by introducing another, irrelevant topic and thereby diverting attention from the original argument • EX: “Yes, health care is messed up, but right with the economy so bad it is no time to worry about health care.”

22. Straw Man • Disputing a view similar to, but not the same as (often distorted, exaggerated, etc. version), that of the arguer's opponent • EX:"Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."

23. Moral Equivalence • Suggesting that a minor offense is the same as a serious wrong doing • EX: “These new dress code rules are facist!”

24. Appeal to Authority • Citing an authority who is not really qualified to make a judgment as proof • EX: “My friend, Joe, says GM stock is going up soon, so I'm buying!”

25. Ad Misericordiam • Appeal to pity, sympathy or a similar emotion in order to “win” an argument • EX: “Teachers should give less homework because students are so overworked!”

26. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact • Forming a conclusion from a hypothetical premise • EX: “If President Bush had never invaded Iraq, we could have concentrated on capturing Bin Laden and would have caught and executed him by now.”

27. Non Sequitur • Literally: “It does not follow” • When the conclusion does not follow logically from the premise; irrelevant reasons are used to support the claim • EX: “Mr Boswell couldn't be the person who poisoned our cat, Truffles, because when I used to take Truffles for walks he always smiled and said "Hello" when we walked by.”

28. Oversimplification • AKA “reductive fallacy” • EX: “Kid's reading scores are going down these days because of the internet.”

29. False/Bad Analogy • Comparing apples to oranges; a bad analogy falls apart when the two things being compared have a significant difference in an area fundamental to the argument • EX: Schools should be run like businesses, and since competition is good for businesses, it should be good for schools, too

30. Two Wrongs Make a Right • Justifying a wrong action by reasoning that the other person would do it to you, too • EX: After leaving a store, Jill notices that she has underpaid by $10. She decides not to return the money to the store because if she had overpaid, they would not have returned the money.