Immigrant Labour and the Development of a Capitalist Labour Market

1. Immigrant Labour and the Development of a Capitalist Labour Market January 28

2. “Many Canadians are reluctant to admit that racial oppression and inferiorization persist in this country. As Canadians, we have the tendency not only to ignore our racist past, but also to dismiss any contemporary racial incidence as nothing but an aberration in an essentially peaceful, tolerant, charitable, and egalitarian nation.” - Joseph Mensah. 2002. Black Canadians: History, Experiences, Social Conditions.

3. “Unlike the United States, where there is at least an admission of the fact that racism exists and has a history, in this country one is faced with a stupefying innocence” - Dionne Brand, quoted in Constance Backhouse. 1999. Colour-Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900-1950.

4. Lecture Overview • slavery • immigration patterns and changing immigration policy

5. Slavery • Slavery existed in New France and continued under British rule. • Slaves were also brought to British North America by the Loyalists. • Slavery in British North America ended in 1834. • Slavery lasted for two centuries in B.N.A., the Underground Railroad for a few decades. http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10166

6. Canadian Immigration Policy Historically Canada’s immigration policy was shaped by the tension between: • the need for settlers and workers, • the fear of cultural, ethnic and racial diversity, • and concerns about competition for jobs. Gradually in the second half of the twentieth century, Canadian immigration policy was also shaped by humanitarian concerns. On the other hand, some Canadians worried about the costs of providing newcomers with public services.

7. Immigrant Labour • In the first half of the 19th century, Canada received an influx of Catholic Irish immigrants particularly during in the 1840s. Digging and building the Rideau Canal, these unskilled labourers “died like flies. But worked like horses” in the word of H.C. Pentland. • From 1880 to 1885, Chinese workers built the most dangerous sections of the transcontinental railway through the mountains. Hundreds of these workers are killed. • http://www.nfb.ca/film/in_the_shadow_of_gold_mountain/ • http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10196

9. Mass Immigration: Past and Present • In 1996, the total Canadian population was 29.6 million. Over the next ten years, Canada received 2.2 million immigrants, including 262,236 in 2005. • In 1904, the total Canadian population was 5.8 million. Over the next ten years, Canada received 2.5 million immigrants, including 400,870 in 1913. • To put that historic immigration in context, it would be like Canada receiving (as a proportion of the population) 12.5 million immigrants (rather than only 2.2 million) over the ten years after 1996!

10. The Preference for British Immigrants • In the 19th century and well into the 20th century, there was a clear preference for British immigrants. • The next most acceptable source for immigrants was continental Europe. These immigrants still faced significant discrimination in Canada on cultural and religious grounds. • Immigration to Canada from the rest of the world faced greater public hostility and governmental restrictions.

11. Discriminatory Immigration Policies and Practices • The Act to Restrict and Regulate Chinese Immigration into Canada (the ‘head tax’) 1885, immigration from China banned (with some exceptions) 1923. • The ‘continuous journey’ regulation of 1908 basically banned immigration from South Asia. http://www3.onf.ca/duneculturealautre/theme_vis.php?id=1994&mediaid=662319 • In 1907, Canada reached a ‘Gentlemen’s Agreement’ with the government of Japan to limit the number of Japanese immigrants to Canada. These restrictions were tightened in 1928. • Canada was very reluctant to accept Jews trying to escape from Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe before and during the Second World War.

12. A Legacy of Discrimination • Electoral franchise • “Security concerns” trump civil rights

13. From a privilege to a right • At the time of Confederation, the vote was generally restricted to white males over the age of 21 who met various property or income qualifications. • From 1867-1885 eligibility was determined in by the provinces. Again from 1898-1920 the provinces determined eligibility but with some federal oversight. • Property and income based restrictions were gradually eliminated by 1920.

14. Racial and ethnic discrimination • BC had explicit rules against Asians voting (Chinese, later Japanese and South Asians). • In 1901 BC required voters to be able to read the provincial election legislation in English. • Similarly, in 1902 Manitoba made it difficult for Polish, Ukrainian and Russian immigrants to vote.

15. First World War 1914 War Measures Act: • Led to internment of 8,579 “enemy aliens” (the majority were Ukrainians) who were used as forced-labourers. Another 80,000 “enemy aliens” were registered and supervised by the state. 1917 War-time Elections Act: • Disenfranchised conscientious objectors (including Mennonites and Doukhobors), those born in an enemy country or spoke an enemy language who became British subjects after March 1902. Tens of thousands of new immigrants to the Canadian prairies were disenfranchised.

16. Second World War • Some German and Italian Canadians were interned. • Beginning in December 1941, the Canadian state forcibly relocated more than 20, 000 Canadians of Japanese ancestry from the west coast to detention camps and confiscated their property. • After the war, close to 4000 Japanese Canadians (many of whom were born in Canada) were deported to Japan.

17. End of Racial and Religious Restrictions on the Franchise • Canadians of Asian origin living in BC only became eligible to vote in 1948. As well, Japanese Canadians that had been dispersed from the west coast had been disenfranchised in 1944. They also gained the vote in 1948. • Religious and social discrimination against Doukhobors was eliminated in 1955. • Status Indians gained vote in 1960.

18. The liberalization of Canadian immigration policy • Canada moved toward a racially and culturally non-discriminatory immigration policy in 1967. • The ‘points system’ was introduced to establish eligibility for immigration to Canada. • This would have a major impact on patterns of immigration to Canada. See: One hundred years of immigration to Canada (1901-2001)

19. Continuing Inequalities • Economic inequality • Lack of political representation • Entangled in the criminal justice system

20. Temporary Migrant Workers Foreign workers continue to be an important source of labour for the Canadian economy. Not all of these foreign workers that contribute to the economy and pay their taxes receive full citizenship rights. • Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP) • Live-in Caregiver Program (LCP) • Non-Immigrant Employment Authorization Program (NIEAP)

21. Unsafe Work and Immigrant Workers • “Worker 'didn't feel safe' before scaffold collapsed” – Toronto Star, January 23, 2010. • Four immigrant workers fell to their death on Christmas eve.

22. Conclusion • The transition to capitalism in Canada occurred through a process of colonization and attempted assimilation. • The capitalist labour market in Canada has always involved ethnic, social and racial inequalities.