Exercise 17

1. Exercise 17 Histology of Nervous Tissue

2. Introduction • 2 principle cell populations: • Neuroglia- also called glial cells • In central nervous system (CNS), they are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells • In peripheral nervous system (PNS), they are Schwann cells, satellite cells • Brace, protect & insulate neurons • Act as phagocytes • Myelinate neuronal extensions • Participate in capillary/neuron exchanges • Control chemical environment around neurons • NOT capable of generating or transmitting nerve impulses

3. Introduction (continued) • Neurons • Basic functional unit of nervous tissue • Highly specialized to transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body to another • Neuron anatomy • Cell body • Found in CNS in clusters called nuclei, outside CNS in clusters called ganglia • Make up the grey matter of the nervous system • Large, rounded nucleus surrounded by neuroplasm (cytoplasm)

4. Neuron Anatomy (continued) • 2 types of neuron processes: • Dendrites- receptive regions; they receive nerve impulses • Axons- generate & conduct nerve impulses • Know figures 17.1, 17.2 & 17.3 • Neuron processes running through the CNS form tracts of white matter • In the PNS, they form peripheral nerves

5. Neuron Classification • Classification by structure • Unipolar- one short process extends from cell body & divides into peripheral & central processes; most distal portions of peripheral process act as dendrites, the rest, along with central process, act as axons; neurons that conduct impulses to the CNS • Bipolar- 2 processes attached to the cell body; found in receptor apparatus of the eye, ear & olfactory mucosa • Multipolar- many processes extending from cell body; single axon, the rest are dendrites; most CNS neurons & those carrying impulses away from CNS are multipolar • Know figure 17.5

6. Neuron Classification (continued) • Classification by function • Sensory (afferent)- carry impulses from sensory receptors in viscera, skin, skeletal muscles, joints or special sensory organs; cell bodies typically found in ganglia outside CNS; typically unipolar • Motor (efferent)- carry impulses from CNS to viscera, body muscles & glands; cell bodies usually in CNS; usually multipolar • Interneurons (association neurons)- situated between pathways connecting sensory & motor neurons; outside CNS; multipolar • Know figure 17.6

7. Neuroglia of the CNS • Most common glial cell type • Each forms myelin sheath around more than one axons in CNS • Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS

8. Structure of a Nerve • A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers (processes) wrapped in connective tissue • Extend to and/or from the CNS and viscera or structures of the body periphery • Nerves carrying both sensory (afferent) & motor (efferent) fibers are called mixed nerves; all spinal nerves are mixed • Nerves that only carry sensory impulses to CNS are called sensory (afferent) • Nerves that carry only motor fibers are called motor (efferent) • Each fiber is surrounded by an endoneurium • Groups of fibers are surrounded by a perineurium, forming bundles called fascicles • Groups of fascicles are bound by epineurium forming a nerve • Blood & lymphatic vessels are also present within the nerve • Know figure 17.7

9. Structure of a Multipolar Neuron

10. Nerve bundle (PNS)

11. Exercise 19 Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves

12. Introduction • Divisions: • Central nervous system (CNS)- brain and spinal cord • Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- cranial & spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors • Sensory portion- nerve fibers that conduct impulses toward the CNS • Motor portion- nerve fibers that conduct impulses away from the CNS • Somatic (voluntary) division- controls skeletal muscles • Autonomic (involuntary) division- controls smooth & cardiac muscles and glands • Sympathetic division • Parasympathetic division

13. The Human Brain • During embryonic development, the CNS first appears as a neural tube • Neural tube then develops into 3 regions • Prosencephalon (forebrain) • Mesencephalon (midbrain) • Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) • Remainder of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord • Those 3 regions become the secondary brain vesicles, which then develop into various adult brain structures • Know figure 19.1

14. The Human Brain (cont.) • Cerebral hemispheres (continued) • Hemispheres share some functions • Each is also specialized in some ways • Left is usually associated with language (analytical) • Right is associated with abstract, conceptual, and spatial processes (artistic & creative) • Those functions are mainly carried out in the outermost grey matter, called the cerebral cortex • Most of the deeper tissue, the white matter, is involved in carrying impulses to & from the cortex

15. The Human Brain (cont.) • Brain stem • Includes: • Cerebral peduncles- connect the pons to the cerebrum • Pons- primarily sensory & motor fiber tracts that connect the brain to lower CNS centers • Medulla oblongata- primarily composed of fiber tracts; houses many vital autonomic centers involved in control of heart rate, respiratory rhythm, and blood pressure, as well as involuntary centers controlling vomiting, swallowing, etc.

16. The Human Brain (cont.) • Cerebral hemispheres • Develop out of the telencephalon of the forebrain • Most superior portion of the brain • Entire surface consists of gyri that are separated by shallow grooves called sulci (singular = sulcus) & deeper grooves called fissures • Hemishpheres are divided by the longitudinal fissure • Frontal & parietal lobes are separated by the central sulcus • Temporal & parietal lobes are separated by the lateral sulcus • Occipital & parietal lobes are separated by the parieto-occipital sulcus • Know figures 19.2 (a, b, & c, not d) & 19.3

17. The Human Brain (cont.) • Diencephalon • Sometimes considered the most superior portion of the brain stem • Embryologically part of the forebrain • Includes olfactory bulbs & tracts, optic nerves, the optic chiasma, optic tracts, the pituitary gland, and the mammillary bodies • Know figures 19.4 a & b, 19.5

18. The Human Brain (cont.) • Cerebellum • Projects dorsally from under the occipital lobes of the cerebrum • 2 major hemispheres • Outer cortex of grey matter & inner white matter • Know figure 19.6

19. Meninges of the Brain • 3 connective tissue membranes: dura mater (outermost), arachnoid mater, pia mater (innermost) • Dural layers are fused together, except in 3 places where the innermost layer extends inward to secure brain structures (falx cerebri) • Meningitis- inflammation of the meninges; caused by infection • Encephalitis- inflammation of the neural tissue of the brain • Know figure 19.7

20. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) • Formed by the choroid plexuses • Similar to plasma in composition • Cushions the brain • Circulates from the 2 lateral ventricles to the 3rd ventricle via the interventricular foramina, then through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle • CSF returns to the blood in the dural sinuses • Improper drainage leads to a build-up, which puts pressure on the brain in adults; causes hydrocephalus in infants • Know figure 19.8

21. Cranial Nerves • Actually part of the PNS • 12 pairs • Primarily serve the head & neck; only the vagus nerves extend into the thoracic & abdominal cavities • Most are mixed; exceptions are the optic, olfactory & vestibulocochlear • Table 19.1: know name, number & function • Know figure 19.9

22. Human brain

23. Human brain sagittal

24. Our brain model

25. Sheeps brain

26. Sheep sagittal #1

27. Sheep sagittal #2 Sheep brain 1. cerebrum 2. lateral ventricles 3. third ventricle 4. cerebral aquaduct 5. fourth ventricle 6. pons 7. cerebellum 8. arbor vitae 9. medulla oblongata 10. genu of corpus callosum 11. body of corpus callosum 12. splenium of corpus callosum 13. fornix 14. massa intermedia 15 & 21. optic chiasma 16. hypophysis 17. infundibulum 18. mammillary body 19. superior colliculus 20. olfactory bulbs 21 & 15. optic chiasma 23. longitudinal cerebral fissure 24. cerebral cortex 25. central white matter 26. choroid plexus

28. Sheep frontal sections Sheep brain 1. cerebrum 2. lateral ventricles 3. third ventricle 4. cerebral aquaduct 5. fourth ventricle 6. pons 7. cerebellum 8. arbor vitae 9. medulla oblongata 10. genu of corpus callosum 11. body of corpus callosum 12. splenium of corpus callosum 13. fornix 14. massa intermedia 15 & 21. optic chiasma 16. hypophysis 17. infundibulum 18. mammillary body 19. superior colliculus 20. olfactory bulbs 21 & 15. optic chiasma 23. longitudinal cerebral fissure 24. cerebral cortex 25. central white matter 26. choroid plexus

29. Exercise 20 Electroencephalography

30. Brain Wave Patterns and the Electroencephalogram • EEG- record of the electrical activity of the brain • Recorded as waves • Represents summed synaptic activity of many neurons • Frequency of 1-30 Hz (cycles per second) • Dominant rhythm of 10 Hz • Average amplitude of 20-100 microvolts • Vary in frequency in different areas of the brain

31. Brain Wave Patterns (cont.) • Waves • Alpha waves- average frequency of 8-13 Hz; produced in a relaxed state with eyes closed; alpha block (suppression) occurs if eyes are opened or if the person begins to concentrate on something; as concentration or excitement increases, frequency increases & amplitude decreases • Beta waves- related to alpha waves, but with higher frequency (14-30 Hz) & lower amplitude; typical of alert state

32. Brain Wave Patterns (cont.) • Waves (cont.) • Delta waves- very high amplitude; frequency of 4 Hz or less; seen in deep sleep • Theta waves- frequency of 4-7 Hz; high amplitude; abnormally contoured; normal in children; abnormal in adults • Brain waves vary with age, sensory stimuli, brain pathology, and chemical state of body • Spontaneous brain waves are ALWAYS present • Lack of brain waves is considered clinical evidence of death

33. Brain wave patterns

34. Exercise 21 Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Autonomic Nervous System

35. Anatomy of the Spinal Cord • Continuation of the brain stem • Association & communication center • Enclosed within the vertebral column • Extends from the foramen magnum to the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra, terminating in the conus medullaris • The filum terminale, an extension of the pia mater, extends into the coccygeal canal • CSF does flow through the spinal canal and can be removed below L3 (lumar tap) • 31 pairs of spinal nerves • Know figures 21.1 & 21.2

36. Grey Matter • Looks like an H or a butterfly in the spinal cord • The dorsal horns contain interneurons & sensory fibers • The ventral horns mostly contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic division of the motor portion of the PNS • The lateral horns contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the sympathetic division of the ANS (PNS)

37. White Matter • Composed of myelinated fibers • White matter on each side of the spinal cord is divided into 3 white columns: • Posterior funiculi • Lateral funiculi • Anterior funiculi • Each funiculus contains tracts • Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain • Descending tracts carry motor impulses from the brain • Severe trauma to the cord can cause a loss of both sensory & motor functions served by that area of the cord, as well as below • Paraplegia- permanent flaccid paralysis of both legs • Quadriplegia- permanent flaccid paralysis of all 4 limbs

38. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) • Subdivision of PNS • Also called involuntary nervous system • Regulates body activities not normally under voluntary control • Serves cardiac & smooth muscle & internal glands • Consists of chains of 2 motor neurons: • Preganglionic neuron- resides in the brain or spinal cord; its axon leaves the CNS & synapses with the 2nd (ganglionic) neuron • Ganglionic neuron- resides in a ganglion outside the CNS; its axon extends to the organ it serves • 2 divisions: sympathetic & parasympathetic

39. ANS • Parasympathetic & sympathetic divisions have antagonistic effects • Parasympathetic division • “Resting & digesting” system • Maintains internal organs for normal functions & homeostasis • Sympathetic division • “Fight or flight” response • Readies the body to deal with situations that threaten homeostasis • Increases heart rate & blood pressure, dilates bronchioles in the lungs, increases blood sugar levels, etc.

40. Spinal cord

41. Spinal cord cross section