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Chapter 12

Chapter 12. Prepared by: Nir Yehuda With contributions by Stephen H. Penman – Columbia University Peter D. Easton and Gregory A. Sommers - Ohio State University Luis Palencia – University of Navarra, IESE Business School. What you will learn from this Chapter.

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Chapter 12

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  1. Chapter 12 Prepared by: Nir Yehuda With contributions by Stephen H. Penman – Columbia University Peter D. Easton and Gregory A. Sommers - Ohio State University Luis Palencia – University of Navarra, IESE Business School

  2. What you will learn from this Chapter • Why the analysis of growth is important for valuation • Why growth analysis focuses on residual earnings growth and abnormal earnings growth rather than earnings growth • Why abnormal earnings growth is equal to growth in residual earnings • What a growth firm is • What transitory earnings are • What “quality of earnings” means • How operating leverage affects earnings as sales change • How changes in ROCE can be created by borrowing • What are the drivers of growth in the common shareholders’ investment

  3. What Is Growth and How Is It Valued? • Growth in sales? • Growth in earnings? • Growth is assets? • Growth in equity? • Does a high P/E ratio indicate a growth company? • Does a high P/B ratio indicate a growth company? Think of growth in residual earnings and abnormal earnings growth A reminder: abnormal earnings growth (AEG) is equal to growth in residual earnings (ΔRE)

  4. A Growth Company: General Electric, Corp.

  5. Is Nike a Growth Firm?

  6. A Cyclical Firm: American Airlines

  7. Change in residual earnings Change due to change in ROCEover the cost of capital Change dueto change in common equity = + Analyzing Growth in Residual Earnings • Changes in residual earnings are driven by: • Changes in ROCE • Changes in required return • Changes in investment A reminder: ΔRE=AEG, so this calculation gives AEG

  8. Analysis of Growth in Residual Earnings and AEG:Nike, Inc. Nike, Inc. [Assumes no change in required equity return]

  9. Analysis of Growth in Residual Earnings and AEG:Reebok Reebok International, Ltd.

  10. Analyzing Change in ROCE: The Scheme

  11. Analyze Changes in Profitability of Operations Analyze the Effects of Changes in Financing (1) (2) Analysis of Changes in ROCE

  12. Explaining the Changes in Operational Profitability Explaining RNOA • Distinguish core and transitory components Core OI is persistent income from core business UI is unusual items that are non-recurring, sometimes called transitory items. All items are after tax

  13. Explaining Changes in Operational Profitability (cont’d.) • Distinguish margin and turnover drivers of core profits where,

  14. (i) Effect due to change in Profit Margin (ii) Effect due to change in Asset Turnover (iii) Effect due to Unusual Items this period Change in RNOA Change in core sales profit margin at previous asset turnover level Change due to change in asset turnover Change due to change in other core income Change due to change in unusual items = + + + Explaining Changes in Operational Profitability (cont’d.) The change in RNOA is explained as: Note: (i) is usually more important that (ii)

  15. Changes in Operational Profitability: Nike and Reebok Nike, Inc. Reebok International, Ltd.

  16. Explaining Changes in Operational Profitability (cont’d.) • Explain changes in profit margins and asset turnoversExplain (i) by looking at profit margin drivers • GM (by segment) • Selling Expenses / Sales • Administrative Expenses / Sales • R&D / Sales Pay particular attention to GM: per unit sales prices, production costs… Explain (ii) by looking at turnovers • Accounts receivables turnover • Inventory turnover • PPE turnover • Accounts payable turnover • Operating liability turnover Also • Look at operating asset composition ratios • Look at operating liabilities composition ratios • Look at OLLEV

  17. Reformulating Income Statements to Identify Core and Unusual Items Reformulated Operating Income Statement: Core and Unusual Items

  18. To Analyze Sustainable Earnings, Analyze R&D Analysis of R&D: Abbott Laboratories

  19. To Analyze Sustainable Earnings, Analyze Marketing Expenditures The Analysis of Advertising Costs: Coca-Cola

  20. To Analyze Sustainable Earnings, Analyze Pension Costs Components of Pension Expense: • Service Cost • Interest Cost • Expected Return on Plan Assets • Amortization of Prior Service Cost • Amortization of Transaction Asset or Liability (before 2000) • Changes in Actuarial Estimates (accrual gains and losses)

  21. Watch for the Expected Rate of Return on Pension Plan Assets • In the 1980s, firms were using expected rates of return of about 7% • In the 1990s, firms were using expected rates of returns of 10-10½% • Applying a high rate of return to bubble asset prices produces bubble earnings • Pricing on the basis of bubble prices perpetuates the bubble The Pension Pyramid Scheme

  22. Watch for Gains of Pension Fund Assets • General Electric’s expected return • General Electric’s expected return on plan assets was $3,024 million in 1998 (22.4% earnings before tax) against a service cost of $625 million. Its net pension expense was a gain of $1,016 million. • IBM reported an expected return on plan assets of $6,264 million in 2001 (56.0% of operating income before tax).

  23. Watch Gains and Losses on Sales of Shares Intel In its report for its third quarter for 1999, Intel reported net income of $1,458 million, with no indication of unusual items. Its cash flow statement, however, reported $556 million in gains on sales of investments, along with a $161 million loss on retirements of plant, as add backs to net income to calculate cash from operations. Delta Air Lines Delta reported operating income (before tax) of $350 million for its September quarter in 1999. However, notes to the report indicated that these earnings included pre-tax gains of $252 million from selling its interest in Singapore Airlines and Priceline.com. IBM IBM reported before-tax operating income of $4,085 for its June, 1999 quarter. However, footnotes revealed that this income included a $3,430 million gain from the sale of IBM's Global Network to AT&T. This gain reduced selling, general and administrative expenses in the income statement!

  24. Watch for Bleed Backs of Restructuring and Merger Changes IBM: Creating earnings with restructuring charges

  25. Miscellaneous Check List • Changes in estimates • Bad debt allowances • Deferred revenue and cookie jar accounts • Warranty allowances • Residual values for leases • Income Taxes • One-time or expiring credits • Valuation allowances for deferred tax assets • Investigate “other income”

  26. Analyzing Operating Leverage Operating Leverage is the proportion of total costs that are fixed versus variable The first component here is called the contribution margin ratio This ratio measures the change in income from a change in one dollar of sales

  27. Operating Leverage Measures Operating Leverage is sometimes calculated as the ratio of fixed costs to variable costs Another measure is: Applying this measure to core operations:

  28. (i) Effect of change in operating profitability (ii) Effect of change in spread (iii) Effect of change in leverage Effect of Financing Analysis of Effect of Changes in Financing Change in ROCE = Change in RNOA + Change due to change in spread at previous level of financial leverage + Change due to change in financial leverage

  29. Effect of Changes in Financing: Nike and Reebok Note: ROCE can be created with leverage

  30. Explaining Changes in the SPREAD SPREAD = RNOA – NBC RNOA has been explained Explain Change in NBC: Distinguish core and unusual borrowing cost Core financing expenses • Change in interest rates (risk free and risk premium) • Change in tax rates (and shield) • Substitution of preferred for debt financing Unusual financing expenses • Tax effect from unusually high or low taxes (operating losses) • Interest income from tax refunds of prior years • Gains and losses on financial items

  31. A Rough Approximation • Some observations • The change in leverage effect (iii) is generally minor • The change in borrowing costs is generally small (then, Spread is largely determined by RNOA) • The RNOA effect (i) is generally the largest • So, if FLEV and NBC are small, a useful approximation is

  32. Breakdown of Growth in Equity Investment  CSE  NOA  NFO  Sales Changes in Sales for Business Segments Or Product Lines Changes in Individual Asset Turnovers Changes in NFO Components

  33. Analysis of Growth in Equity Investment These components of growth in equity investment: • Growth in sales • Change in net operating assets that support each dollar of sales • Change in the amount of net debt that is used to finance the change in net operating assets rather than equity

  34. Change in Common Equity Change due to change in sales at previous level of asset turnover Change due to change in asset turnover Change in financial leverage = + + Nike Reebok Analysis of Growth in Common Equity: Nike and Reebok

  35. Preparing Financial Statements for Forecasting • Identify dirty surplus and calculate ROCE from statement of shareholders’ equity • Reformulate balance sheet • Reformulate income statement • Decompose ROCE: Profitability Analysis • Analyze ROCE: Sustainability of Earnings • Analyze Growth Now you are ready to forecast future ROCE and growth and carry out valuations

  36. Using Growth Analysis to Understand P/B and P/E Ratios • How does P/B relate to growth? • How does P/E relate to growth? • How does P/E relate to transitory earnings?

  37. A reminder: The Benchmark Case of Normal P/B and Normal P/E

  38. A Normal P/E: Whirlpool Corporation Valuation: (approx) (approx) Normal P/E for a 10% cost of capital

  39. Forecasted RE and Earnings for a Normal P/E: Whirlpool Corporation For Whirlpool, RE is forecasted to be constant and cum-dividend earnings also expected to grow at the cost of capital, so Abnormal Earnings Growth (AEG) is expected to be zero.

  40. P/E Ratios Different from Normal • If earnings are expected to grow faster than the cost of capital (cum-dividend), P/E > Normal • If earnings are expected to grow slower than the cost of capital (cum-dividend), P/E < Normal OR • If AEG is forecasted to be positive, P/E > Normal • If AEG is forecasted to be negative, P/E < Normal OR • If RE is forecasted to increase, P/E > Normal • If RE is forecasted to decrease, P/E <Normal

  41. The P/E Ratio and the P/B Ratio • P/B indicates expected growth in book value • P/E indicates expected growth in earnings OR • P/B indicates future RE • P/E indicates future changes in RE from current RE

  42. P/B Ratio High Low 23,146 10,848 High P/E Ratio 10,849 23,147 Low How do P/E and P/B Articulate? Joint Values of P/E and P/B Ratios; 1963-2001

  43. Median P/B for E/P Portfolios: 1968-85

  44. Median E/P for P/B Portfolios: 1968-85

  45. Fill Out the Cells(this is not TIC-TAC-TOE) P/B High Normal Low A B C P/E Low Normal High D E F G H I Which cell do growth firms fall in ?

  46. A FRE>0 CRE<FRE B CRE<0 FRE=0 C FRE<0 CRE<FRE A B C D CRE>0 CRE=FRE E CRE=FRE=0 F CRE<0 CRE=FRE D E F G FRE>0 CRE>CRE H CRE>0 FRE=0 I FRE<0 CRE>FRE G H I The Solution P/B High Normal Low FRE>0 FRE=0 FRE<0 P/E Low Normal High FRE<CRE FRE=CRE FRE>CRE FRE = Expected future residual earnings CRE= Current residual earnings

  47. What is a Growth Stock? • P/E indicates growth in RE but this could be from a very low base: Firms in cell C can be high P/E firms • Trailing P/E reflects growth and transitory earnings. If earnings are temporarily low, P/E will be high The Molodovsky Effect: • Cells B and H are pure Molodovsky effects • Cells A, C, G and I are mixed growth and Molodovsky effects

  48. Appendix A Additional Presentation for Nike and Reebok

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