Supporting standards comprise 65% of the U. S. History Test 13 (B)

1. Supporting standards comprise 65% of the U. S. History Test 13 (B)

2. Supporting Standard (13)The student understands the causes & effects of migration & immigration on American Society. The Student is expected to: (B) Analyze the causes & effects of changing demographic patterns resulting from legal & illegal immigration to the U. S.

3. Illegal immigration to the United States Illegal immigration to the United States, also referred to as undocumented immigration, is the act by foreign nationals of entering the U. S. without government permission (i.e., a visa) and in violation of immigration law of the United States, or staying beyond the termination date of a visa, also in violation of the law. Illegal immigration to the United States, also referred to as undocumented immigration, is the act by foreign nationals of entering the U. S. without government permission (i.e., a visa) and in violation of immigration law of the United States, or staying beyond the termination date of a visa, also in violation of the law.

4. The illegal immigrant population of the U. S. in 2008 was estimated by the Center for Immigration Studies to be about 11 million people, down from 12.5 million people in 2007. Other estimates range from 7 to 20 million. According to a Pew Hispanic Report statement, in 2005, 57% of illegal immigrants were from Mexico; 21% were from other Latin American countries, primarily from Central America; 13% were from Asia; 6% were from Europe and Canada; and 3% were from Africa and the rest of the world. The illegal immigrant population of the U. S. in 2008 was estimated by the Center for Immigration Studies to be about 11 million people, down from 12.5 million people in 2007. Other estimates range from 7 to 20 million. According to a Pew Hispanic Report statement, in 2005, 57% of illegal immigrants were from Mexico; 21% were from other Latin American countries, primarily from Central America; 13% were from Asia; 6% were from Europe and Canada; and 3% were from Africa and the rest of the world.

5. Profile and demographics Illegal immigrants continue to exceed the number of legal immigrants—a trend that has held steady since the 1990s. While the majority of illegal immigrants continue to concentrate in places with existing large Hispanic communities, increasingly illegal immigrants are settling throughout the rest of the country. An estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States illegally. Illegal immigrants arriving in recent years tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recent years have at least some college education. Nonetheless, illegal immigrants as a group tend to be less educated than other sections of the U.S. population: 49 percent haven’t completed high school, compared with 9 percent of native-born Americans and 25 percent of legal immigrants. Illegal immigrants continue to exceed the number of legal immigrants—a trend that has held steady since the 1990s. While the majority of illegal immigrants continue to concentrate in places with existing large Hispanic communities, increasingly illegal immigrants are settling throughout the rest of the country. An estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States illegally. Illegal immigrants arriving in recent years tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recent years have at least some college education. Nonetheless, illegal immigrants as a group tend to be less educated than other sections of the U.S. population: 49 percent haven’t completed high school, compared with 9 percent of native-born Americans and 25 percent of legal immigrants.

6. Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U.S. economy. According to National Public Radio in 2005, about 3 percent work in agriculture; 33 percent have jobs in service industries; and substantial numbers can be found in construction and related occupations (16 percent), and in production, installation, and repair (17 percent). According to USA Today in 2006, about 4 percent work in farming; 21 percent have jobs in service industries; and substantial numbers can be found in construction and related occupations (19 percent), and in production, installation, and repair (15 percent), with 12% in sales, 10% in management, and 8% in transportation. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country. Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U.S. economy. According to National Public Radio in 2005, about 3 percent work in agriculture; 33 percent have jobs in service industries; and substantial numbers can be found in construction and related occupations (16 percent), and in production, installation, and repair (17 percent). According to USA Today in 2006, about 4 percent work in farming; 21 percent have jobs in service industries; and substantial numbers can be found in construction and related occupations (19 percent), and in production, installation, and repair (15 percent), with 12% in sales, 10% in management, and 8% in transportation. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country.

7. A percentage of illegal immigrants do not remain indefinitely but do return to their country of origin; they are often referred to as “sojourners: they come to the United States for several years but eventually return to their home country.” A percentage of illegal immigrants do not remain indefinitely but do return to their country of origin; they are often referred to as “sojourners: they come to the United States for several years but eventually return to their home country.” The Pew Hispanic Center determined that according to an analysis of Census Bureau data about 8 percent of children born in the United States in 2008—about 340,000—were offspring of illegal immigrants. In total, 4 million U.S.-born children of illegal immigrant parents resided in this country in 2009 (alongside 1.1 million foreign-born children of illegal immigrant parents). These infants are, according to the Fourteenth Amendment, American citizens from birth. These children are sometimes referred to as “anchor babies” by those opposed to this method of citizenship attained outside of the legal immigration process. The Pew Hispanic Center determined that according to an analysis of Census Bureau data about 8 percent of children born in the United States in 2008—about 340,000—were offspring of illegal immigrants. In total, 4 million U.S.-born children of illegal immigrant parents resided in this country in 2009 (alongside 1.1 million foreign-born children of illegal immigrant parents). These infants are, according to the Fourteenth Amendment, American citizens from birth. These children are sometimes referred to as “anchor babies” by those opposed to this method of citizenship attained outside of the legal immigration process.

8. The majority of children that are born with illegal parents fail to graduate high school, averaging two fewer years of school than their peers. But once the parents do gain citizenship the children do much better in school. Reason for this decline in school is thought to be because of many issues not limited to but including stress, pressure to work at a younger age, and not having the economic resources needed to get higher education. The majority of children that are born with illegal parents fail to graduate high school, averaging two fewer years of school than their peers. But once the parents do gain citizenship the children do much better in school. Reason for this decline in school is thought to be because of many issues not limited to but including stress, pressure to work at a younger age, and not having the economic resources needed to get higher education.

9. The categories of foreign-born people in the United States are: • US citizens born outside the United States (naturalized) • Foreign-born non-citizens with current visa to reside and/or work in the US (documented) • Foreign-born non-citizens in the United States that are prohibited from entry (illegal) • US citizens born outside the United States (naturalized) • Foreign-born non-citizens with current visa to reside and/or work in the US (documented) • Foreign-born non-citizens in the United States that are prohibited from entry (illegal)

10. The United States is viewed worldwide as a highly desirable destination by would-be migrants. International polls by the Gallup organization have found that more than 165 million adults in 148 foreign countries would, if they could, move to the US, which is the most desired destination for migrants. Most immigrants who come to the United States come for better opportunities for employment, avoidance of political oppression, the opportunity to rejoin their loved ones, for the prospect of providing better lives for themselves and their children, and for the educational and medical services benefits. The United States is viewed worldwide as a highly desirable destination by would-be migrants. International polls by the Gallup organization have found that more than 165 million adults in 148 foreign countries would, if they could, move to the US, which is the most desired destination for migrants. Most immigrants who come to the United States come for better opportunities for employment, avoidance of political oppression, the opportunity to rejoin their loved ones, for the prospect of providing better lives for themselves and their children, and for the educational and medical services benefits.

11. The continuing practice of hiring unauthorized workers has been referred to as “the magnet for illegal immigration.” As a significant percentage of employers are willing to hire illegal immigrants for higher pay than they would typically receive in their former country, illegal immigrants have prime motivation to cross borders. A study of illegal immigrants from Mexico in the 1978 harvest season in Oregon showed that they earned six times what they could have earned in Mexico, and even after deducting the costs of the seasonal migration and certain additional expenses for living in the United States, their net U.S. earnings were three times their Mexican alternative. The continuing practice of hiring unauthorized workers has been referred to as “the magnet for illegal immigration.” As a significant percentage of employers are willing to hire illegal immigrants for higher pay than they would typically receive in their former country, illegal immigrants have prime motivation to cross borders. A study of illegal immigrants from Mexico in the 1978 harvest season in Oregon showed that they earned six times what they could have earned in Mexico, and even after deducting the costs of the seasonal migration and certain additional expenses for living in the United States, their net U.S. earnings were three times their Mexican alternative.

12. In 2003, then-President of Mexico, Vincente Fox stated that remittances “are our biggest source of foreign income, bigger than oil, tourism or foreign investment” and “the money transfers grew after Mexican consulates started giving identity cards to their citizens in the United States.” He stated that money sent from Mexican workers in the United States to their families back home reached a record $12 billion in 2003. Two years later, in 2005, the World Bank stated that Mexico was receiving $18.1 billion in remittances and that it ranked third (behind only India and China) among the countries receiving the greatest amount of remittances. In 2003, then-President of Mexico, Vincente Fox stated that remittances “are our biggest source of foreign income, bigger than oil, tourism or foreign investment” and “the money transfers grew after Mexican consulates started giving identity cards to their citizens in the United States.” He stated that money sent from Mexican workers in the United States to their families back home reached a record $12 billion in 2003. Two years later, in 2005, the World Bank stated that Mexico was receiving $18.1 billion in remittances and that it ranked third (behind only India and China) among the countries receiving the greatest amount of remittances.

13. Because the United States education system creates relatively few people who either lack a high school diploma or who hold PhDs, there is a shortage of workers needed to fulfill seasonal low-skilled jobs as well as certain high-skilled jobs. To fill these gaps, the United States immigration system attempts to compensate for these shortages by providing for temporary immigration by farm workers and seasonal low-skilled workers, and for permanent immigration by high-skilled workers. Another cause of illegal immigration—the ineffectiveness of current employer sanctions for illegal hiring—allows migrants who are in the country illegally to easily find jobs. Because the United States education system creates relatively few people who either lack a high school diploma or who hold PhDs, there is a shortage of workers needed to fulfill seasonal low-skilled jobs as well as certain high-skilled jobs. To fill these gaps, the United States immigration system attempts to compensate for these shortages by providing for temporary immigration by farm workers and seasonal low-skilled workers, and for permanent immigration by high-skilled workers. Another cause of illegal immigration—the ineffectiveness of current employer sanctions for illegal hiring—allows migrants who are in the country illegally to easily find jobs.

14. The United States immigration system provides only limited channels for legal, permanent economic migration, especially for low-skilled workers. The United States immigration system rests on three pillars (family reunification, provision of scarce labor) as in agricultural and specific high-skilled worker sectors and protecting American workers from competition with foreign workers. The current system sets an overall limit of 675,000 permanent immigrants each year; this limit does not apply to spouses, unmarried minor children or parents of U.S. citizens. Outside of this number for permanent immigrants, 480,000 visas are allotted for those under the family-preference rules and only 140,000 are allocated for employment-related preferences. The United States immigration system provides only limited channels for legal, permanent economic migration, especially for low-skilled workers. The United States immigration system rests on three pillars (family reunification, provision of scarce labor) as in agricultural and specific high-skilled worker sectors and protecting American workers from competition with foreign workers. The current system sets an overall limit of 675,000 permanent immigrants each year; this limit does not apply to spouses, unmarried minor children or parents of U.S. citizens. Outside of this number for permanent immigrants, 480,000 visas are allotted for those under the family-preference rules and only 140,000 are allocated for employment-related preferences.

15. The current system and low number of visas available, make it impossible for low-skilled workers to legally and permanently enter the country to work, so illegal entry becomes the way migrants respond to the lure of jobs with higher wages than what they would be able to find in their current country. Another reason for the large numbers of illegal immigrants present in the United States is the termination of the bracero program. This program existed from 1942 to 1964 to supply low-skilled Mexican workers to harvest fruits and vegetables in the United States. Many legal workers became illegal when this program ended because the change in law was not accompanied by a change in economic incentives for Mexican workers and the American growers. The current system and low number of visas available, make it impossible for low-skilled workers to legally and permanently enter the country to work, so illegal entry becomes the way migrants respond to the lure of jobs with higher wages than what they would be able to find in their current country. Another reason for the large numbers of illegal immigrants present in the United States is the termination of the bracero program. This program existed from 1942 to 1964 to supply low-skilled Mexican workers to harvest fruits and vegetables in the United States. Many legal workers became illegal when this program ended because the change in law was not accompanied by a change in economic incentives for Mexican workers and the American growers.

16. Chain immigration The flow of Mexicans to the U. S. has produced a “network effect” (not unlike the process of European immigration from the east coast of American during the 19th century) furthering immigration as Mexicans moved to join relatives already in the U.S. The recent dramatic increase in the population of illegal immigrants has sparked more illegal immigrants to cross borders. Once the extended families of illegal immigrants cross national borders, they create a “network effect” by building large communities. The flow of Mexicans to the U. S. has produced a “network effect” (not unlike the process of European immigration from the east coast of American during the 19th century) furthering immigration as Mexicans moved to join relatives already in the U.S. The recent dramatic increase in the population of illegal immigrants has sparked more illegal immigrants to cross borders. Once the extended families of illegal immigrants cross national borders, they create a “network effect” by building large communities.

17. The USA Patriot Act was passed seven weeks after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The purpose of the act was to give the government more power to act against suspicious terrorist activity. The new governmental powers granted by this act included significant expansion in surveillance as well as a significant expansion in the range of conditions in which illegal immigrants could be deported from the United States based on suspicion of terrorist activity. The USA Patriot Act had a direct effect on deportations of immigrants from the United States. The new act gave the government the power to deport individuals based not on plots or acts of terrorism but simply on affiliations with certain organizations. The Secretary of State designated specific organizations foreign terrorist organizations before the USA Patriot Act was implemented. The USA Patriot Act was passed seven weeks after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The purpose of the act was to give the government more power to act against suspicious terrorist activity. The new governmental powers granted by this act included significant expansion in surveillance as well as a significant expansion in the range of conditions in which illegal immigrants could be deported from the United States based on suspicion of terrorist activity. The USA Patriot Act had a direct effect on deportations of immigrants from the United States. The new act gave the government the power to deport individuals based not on plots or acts of terrorism but simply on affiliations with certain organizations. The Secretary of State designated specific organizations foreign terrorist organizations before the USA Patriot Act was implemented.

18. Organizations on this list were deemed dangerous because they were actively involved in terrorist activity that threatened United States national security. The USA Patriot Act created a type of organization deemed designated organizations. The Secretary of State and Attorney General were given the power to designate any organization that supported terrorist activity on any level. The act also allows for penalization of an individual’s involvement in undesignated organizations that were still deemed suspicious. Organizations on this list were deemed dangerous because they were actively involved in terrorist activity that threatened United States national security. The USA Patriot Act created a type of organization deemed designated organizations. The Secretary of State and Attorney General were given the power to designate any organization that supported terrorist activity on any level. The act also allows for penalization of an individual’s involvement in undesignated organizations that were still deemed suspicious.

19. Under the USA Patriot Act the Attorney General was granted the power to “certify” illegal immigrants based on the grounds that they pose a threat to national security. Once an illegal immigrant is certified they must be taken into custody and face mandatory detention which will result in a criminal charge or release. The USA Patriot Act has been criticized for violating the Fifth Amendment’s right to due process. Under the USA Patriot Act an illegal immigrant is not granted the opportunity for a hearing before given certification. It is criticized in general for allowing mandatory detention of illegal immigrants on inadequate grounds. Under the USA Patriot Act the Attorney General was granted the power to “certify” illegal immigrants based on the grounds that they pose a threat to national security. Once an illegal immigrant is certified they must be taken into custody and face mandatory detention which will result in a criminal charge or release. The USA Patriot Act has been criticized for violating the Fifth Amendment’s right to due process. Under the USA Patriot Act an illegal immigrant is not granted the opportunity for a hearing before given certification. It is criticized in general for allowing mandatory detention of illegal immigrants on inadequate grounds.

20. Several US cities—“Sanctuary Cities”—have instructed their own law enforcement personnel and other city employees not to notify or cooperate with the federal government when they become aware of illegal immigrants living within their jurisdiction. They include: Washington, D. C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego, Austin, Salt Lake City, Dallas, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Miami, Denver, Aurora, Baltimore, Seattle, Portland, Or., Portland, Ma., & Senath. Most of these cities claim that the benefit illegal immigrants bring to their city outweigh the costs. Opponents say the measures violate federal law as the cities are in effect creating their own immigration policy, an area of law which only Congress has authority to alter. Several US cities—“Sanctuary Cities”—have instructed their own law enforcement personnel and other city employees not to notify or cooperate with the federal government when they become aware of illegal immigrants living within their jurisdiction. They include: Washington, D. C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego, Austin, Salt Lake City, Dallas, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Miami, Denver, Aurora, Baltimore, Seattle, Portland, Or., Portland, Ma., & Senath. Most of these cities claim that the benefit illegal immigrants bring to their city outweigh the costs. Opponents say the measures violate federal law as the cities are in effect creating their own immigration policy, an area of law which only Congress has authority to alter.

21. Concerns raised by immigration • Identity theft • Drug trafficking • Gang violence • Environment National security and terrorism • Harm to illegal immigrants, e.g., death at border crossings • Slavery • Prostitution • Cultural—the threat to divide the U. S culturally into an Anglo-Protestant north, central, and eastern portion, and a Catholic-Hispanic southwest.

22. One of the most important factors regarding public opinion about illegal immigration, is the level of unemployment; anti-illegal immigrant sentiment is highest where unemployment is highest and vice-versa. In general, some say that illegal immigrants are taking away jobs from Americans; however businesses and agricultural groups disagree and say that migrant workers are needed to fill unattractive jobs. This is further supported by a May 2006 New York Times/CBS News Poll report that 53 percent of Americans felt “illegal immigrants mostly take the jobs Americans don’t want.” However there are others who say that illegal immigration helps to “decimate the bargaining leverage of the American worker. If you use a form of labor recruitment that bids down the cost of labor, that leads you to a society where a small number are very, very rich, there’s nobody in the middle, and everyone is left scrambling for crumbs at the bottom. Yet there are still others who say that the U.S. “has an economy that depends on illegal immigration” and “without illegal immigration labor, it would almost certainly not be possible to produce the same volume of food in the country.” One of the most important factors regarding public opinion about illegal immigration, is the level of unemployment; anti-illegal immigrant sentiment is highest where unemployment is highest and vice-versa. In general, some say that illegal immigrants are taking away jobs from Americans; however businesses and agricultural groups disagree and say that migrant workers are needed to fill unattractive jobs. This is further supported by a May 2006 New York Times/CBS News Poll report that 53 percent of Americans felt “illegal immigrants mostly take the jobs Americans don’t want.” However there are others who say that illegal immigration helps to “decimate the bargaining leverage of the American worker. If you use a form of labor recruitment that bids down the cost of labor, that leads you to a society where a small number are very, very rich, there’s nobody in the middle, and everyone is left scrambling for crumbs at the bottom. Yet there are still others who say that the U.S. “has an economy that depends on illegal immigration” and “without illegal immigration labor, it would almost certainly not be possible to produce the same volume of food in the country.”

23. An ABC News Poll, indicates that most respondents (67%) believe the United States is not doing enough to keep illegal immigrants from coming into the country and, according to a CBS News/New York Times poll most Americans believe that US immigration policy needs either fundamental changes (41%) or to be completely rebuilt (49%). An ABC News Poll, indicates that most respondents (67%) believe the United States is not doing enough to keep illegal immigrants from coming into the country and, according to a CBS News/New York Times poll most Americans believe that US immigration policy needs either fundamental changes (41%) or to be completely rebuilt (49%).

24. In an opinion poll by Zogby International in 2005, voters were also asked, “Do you support or oppose the Bush administration’s proposal to give millions of undocumented immigrants guest worker status and the opportunity to become citizens?” 35% gave their support; 56 percent disagreed. The same poll noted a huge majority, 81%, believes local and state police should help federal authorities enforce laws against illegal immigration. Although Americans may favor one immigration policy over another, perceptions of government and officials’ ability to implement these policies is consistently negative. In an opinion poll by Zogby International in 2005, voters were also asked, “Do you support or oppose the Bush administration’s proposal to give millions of undocumented immigrants guest worker status and the opportunity to become citizens?” 35% gave their support; 56 percent disagreed. The same poll noted a huge majority, 81%, believes local and state police should help federal authorities enforce laws against illegal immigration. Although Americans may favor one immigration policy over another, perceptions of government and officials’ ability to implement these policies is consistently negative. President Obama taken to task by Arizona Governor Jan Brewer

25. Appendix As of 2006, the following data table shows a spread of distribution of locations where illegal immigrants reside by state. An

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