Brunning – Chapter 8

1. Brunning – Chapter 8 Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Ill defined: More than one solution Well defined: Has only one correct answer

2. Historical Perspectives • Thorndiketrial and errorhumans and animals solve problems more or less the same waysuccess occurs incrementally as result of trial and error • Deweyconscious deliberate process governed by a naturally occurring sequence of steps • Presentation of the problem • Defining the problem • Developing hypothesis • Testing the hypothesis • Selecting the best hypothesis • Gestalt • (Kohler)chimp had insight (banana) • Functional fixedness loose ability to see objects in different way

3. Selecting an appropriate strategy Algorithms = ruleeffective Heuristics = rules of thumbnot as effective because they do not always guarantee solution Trial and errorused when faced with unfamiliar problem Means-ends-analysisreduce distance to goals by taking steps Evaluate success of one’s performance Implementing strategyexperts Strategy shifting Teachers use more strategies Solving problems at a deeper level Evaluate problems by type & severity Have more procedural knowledge Evaluate solutions To improve problem solving skills Ways of evaluating Productsend resultbest solution Processhow well was the activity performed?

4. Expert Knowledge in Problem Solving Domain specific Experience

5. Characteristics of Experts • Excel in own domain • Process info. In large units • Are faster • Hold more info. in STM & LTM • Represent info at deeper level • Better monitors of performance • Spend more time analyzing problem • Bloom (1985)stages of practice: • Early years = Playful engagement • Supportive home environment • Parents stress motivation and effort • Middle years = Begin to show true signs of expertise • Attached to highly skilled mentors (professionals) • Development of a steady regiment of practice, • competition and feedback • Late years = Finding a master teacher who can help develop • expertise • Peer relationship become importanttotal • psychological commitment Talent needs practice Transfer only happens when practice in different settings

6. Improving Problem Solving:(1) Facilitate acquisition of expert knowledge(2) Develop an awareness of general problem solving(3) Focus on discovering and identifying problems(4) Use external representation when possible • Critical Thinking • Definition • Reflective thinking focus on deciding what to believe • Better thinking • Thinking that is directed to clarifying a goal rather than adopting it • Requires to consider general issues across several domainsproblem solving specialized problems (domain specific) • Most poblems are external statescritical thinking = internal states

7. Focusing on the question • Analyzing arguments • Clarification (questions & answers) • Judging the credibility of the source • Observing and judging observational reports • Deducing and judging deductions • Inducing and judging inductions • Making value judgments • Defining terms and judging definitions • Identifying assumptions • Deciding on actions • Interactions with others Perkins Model of Intelligence Knowledge Tactics Power Thinking frames (organization): Acquisition Automaticity Transfer

8. Planning a Thinking Skills Program • Design a stand alone or imbedded program • Identify the appropriate skills • Descriptive (how good thinking actually happen) or prescriptive models (how good thinking should happen) • Characteristics of 4 thinking skills: • Critical thinking • Evaluate contrasting positionsidentify, analyze, weigh evidence, gather new information • Creative thinking • Generate new ideas/productsestablish need for idea, restructure existing view of problem, generate possibilities • Decision making • To reach an informed decisionconsider and evaluate alternatives • Problem solving • To reach one or more adequate solutions to the problemidentify, represent, select a strategy, implement the strategy and evaluate it • Implementing instruction • Thinking sequencing skills • Evaluating the program • Does the program include those skills that you want to improve? • Is the program sustainable long enough to achieve goals? • Are support systems available? • Will the skills transfer? • Can the skills be practiced? Wisdom: Tacit Values Goals