development across the life span

8 development across the life span

Learning Objective Menu • LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development • LO 8.2 The Relationship between Heredity and Environmental Factors • LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy • LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood • LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • LO 8.8 How Adolescents Develop Formal Operation, Moral Thinking, and the Adolescent’s Search for Identity • LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging • LO 8.10 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying • LO 8.11 Some Cross-Cultural Differences in Views of Death and Dying

Developmental Research Designs LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development • Human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death • Longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3)

Same Participants Different Times Different Times Different Times Longitudinal Design Compare Compare Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3)

Developmental Research Designs LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development • Cross-sectional design: research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time • Cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years

Nature versus Nurture LO 8.2 The Relationship between Heredity and Environmental Factors • Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions • Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions • Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs. nurture

Genetics and Development LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • Genetics: the science of inherited traits • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

Figure 8.1 DNA MoleculeIn this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugarsand phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes forbuilding the proteins that make up organic life.

Genetics and Development LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • Gene: section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements • dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait • recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Figure 8.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKUThis figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.(a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.

Figure 8.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKUThis figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.(b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.

Mendel Box LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes

Mendel Box LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • 75% have brown eyes.25% have blue eyes.

Genetics and Development LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA • Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome, whereas genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease.

Genetics and Development LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • Conception: the moment at which a female becomes pregnant • Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg • Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm • Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby

Conception and Twins LO Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births • Monozygotic twins: identical twins; formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo • Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins; occurs when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic TwinsBecause identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who comefrom two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.

Periods of Pregnancy LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy • Germinal period: first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining; embryo is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization

Periods of Pregnancy LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy • Embryonic period: the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop • critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant • teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect

Periods of Pregnancy LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy • Fetal period: the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child • fetus: name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby

Figure 8.4 Five Infant ReflexesShown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);

Figure 8.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.

Figure 8.6 Six Motor MilestonesShown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months,

Figure 8.6 (continued) Six Motor Milestones(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood • Four critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are: • respiration • digestion • circulation • temperature regulation • Infants are born with reflexes that help them survive: sucking, rooting, Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski. reflexes

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood • The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth. • Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood.

Immunizations LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood • Immunizations are far less dangerous than the diseases they are designed to prevent, and are one of the most effective weapons in the fight against infectious diseases.

Cognitive Development LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas), a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events

Piaget’s Stage Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment • object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight • Stewie and Object Permanence

Figure 8.7 Conservation ExperimentA typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

Piaget’s Stage Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world • egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes example • centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

Piaget’s Stage Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Preoperational Stage (cont’d) • conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature conservation • irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Piaget’s Stage Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Concrete operations stage: third stage of cognitive development. in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking • Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

Vygotsky’s Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Russian Psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s ideas were originally suppressed by the Soviet government but have since gained a following around the world • Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Vygotsky’s Theory LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher • His ideas have been put into practice in education through the use of cooperative learning. • Group work with an emphasis on common goals and reciprocal teaching is indicative of Vygotsky’s theory.

Stages of Language Development LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops • Cooing-at about 2 months of age, babies begin to make vowel-like sounds • Babbling-at about 6 months of age, babies add consonants sounds to the vowels. • One-Word Speech (Holophrases)-around the age of 1, most children start to say actual words, e.g. “Milk!” might mean “I want milk.”

Stages of Language Development • Telegraphic Speech-At around a year and a half, toddlers start forming short, simple sentences using nouns, verb, and adjectives. “Me go bye-bye.” • Whole Sentences-As children mature they gain grammar, and increase the number of words in their sentence. By the age of 6 they are almost as fluent as an adult.

Noam Chomsky-Language Acqusition Device • Chomsky disputes Skinnerian principles of reinforcement in the learning of language. • Chomsky believes that we are born with an innate ability to learn language and therefore language develops along a well researched sequence.

Temperament LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • Temperament: the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth (Chess & Thomas, 1986) • easy: regular, adaptable, and happy • difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable • slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change • Harlow

Attachment LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver (Mary Ainsworth, 1985) • secure: willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return • avoidant: unattached; explores without “touching base” • ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return

Attachment LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • Attachment (cont’d) • Disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed • Ainsworth

Erikson’s First Four Stages LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • Trust versus mistrust: first stage of personality development, in which the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care • Autonomy versus shame and doubt: second stage of personality development, in which the toddler strives for physical independence

Erikson’s First Four Stages LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development • Initiative versus guilt: third stage of personality development, in which the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world

development across the life span