Writing to Argue or Persuade

1. Writing to Argue or Persuade What do you see? A man playing a saxophone? Maybe a woman’s face!

2. What is an argument? A written argument consists of a claim and support for the claim. The claim states the issue and then takes a position on a debatable topic (the position can be written as a THESIS STATEMENT). Support for the claim (EVIDENCE, reasons, and EXAMPLES) are presented factually and logically.

3. For ACADEMIC WRITING, as well as business and PUBLIC WRITING, arguments are ways of demonstrating CRITICAL THINKING. Arguments involve making and defending a position, a proposal, or an interpretation on a topic open to debate. So that you can argue your position effectively, you want to examine critically all sides of the topic.

4. On difficult issues, your goal is to persuade an AUDIENCE to consider your ideas with an open mind, which means that your audience’s viewpoints and values need to influence your decisions about content, organization, and style.

5. How do I choose a topic and develop a claim for an argument? When you choose a topic for a written argument, be sure that it’s open to debate. An essay becomes an argument when it makes a claim about or takes a position on information. An effective way to develop a position on a topic is to ask a question about it or to identify the controversy surrounding it.

6. FACT Students at Calhoon College must study a foreign language. DEBATABLE QUESTION Should Calhoon College require students to study a foreign language? ONE SIDE Calhoon College should not require students to study a foreign language. OTHER SIDE Calhoon College should require students to study a foreign language.

7. Often instructors assign an argument topic, including the claim to make. In such cases, you need to argue in support of that position. In an academic setting, if you can choose your own topic, choose one suitable for college writing. Your readers expect you to select a topic of substance and to argue convincingly and reasonably about it. For example, “book censorship in public libraries” is worthy of a college-level essay; “the color of baseball caps” is not.

8. How do I support my argument? Use reasons, examples, and evidence to support an argument’s claim One good method for developing reasons for an argument is to ask yourself why you believe your claim. When you respond, “Because . . . ,” you offer reasons for your claim. Another method to find reasons is to list pros and cons about your claim. The lists usually contain reasons. Evidence needs to be sufficient, representative, relevant, accurate, reasonable, and current Specifically, evidence consists of facts, statistics, expert testimony, personal experience, and so forth.

9. What types of appeals can provide support? An effective argument relies on three types of persuasive appeals: logical appeals, emotional appeals, and ethical appeals. The ancient Greeks called these appeals logos, pathos, and ethos.Comments by When you use logical appeals (logos), you allow your readers, whether they agree or disagree with you, to respect your position on the topic. Sound reasoning involves using effective evidence and reasons, accurate deductive and inductive reasoning, and clear distinctions between fact and opinion. Sound reasoning avoids LOGICAL FALLACIES.

10. The Toulmin model for argument (Logical) • Claim: A variation of a thesis statement. If needed, the claim is qualified or limited. • Support: Reasons and evidence, moving from broad reasons to specific data and details, support the claim. • Warrants: The writer’s underlying assumptions, which are often implied rather than stated. Warrants may also need support (also called backing).

11. Emotional Appeal When you use emotional appeals (pathos), you try to persuade your readers by appealing to their hearts more than their minds. Such appeals are generally more effective when you combine them with logical appeals. A person who asks for a raise and gives reasons like “I have a family to support” or “I need to pay medical bills” likely won’t get very far. The person also needs to prove that his or her work contributions have gone above and beyond the job description, dramatically increased sales, or brought similar advantages.

13. When you use ethical appeals (ethos), you establish your personal credibility with your audience. Your readers need to trust and respect you before they can be open to your position. One effective way to make an ethical appeal is to draw on your personal experience, as long as it relates directly to your argument. You can also establish your credibility by demonstrating that you know what you are talking about, showing—not merely claiming—that you are well informed about your topic.

14. How do I consider my audience? The PURPOSE of written argument is to convince your AUDIENCE, either to agree with you or to be open to your position. Therefore, you want to consider what your readers already know about your topic. Further, think about their values, viewpoints, and assumptions. Always use this information to develop your argument.

15. Unfortunately, some members of some audiences can be persuaded by purely sensational or one-sided claims. Witness the effects on some readers of highly charged advertising or of narrowly one-sided ultraconservative or ultraliberal assertions. However, such arguments rarely change the minds of people who don’t already agree with them. Critical thinking quickly reveals their weaknesses, including a frequent use of LOGICAL FALLACIES

16. What are logical fallacies? Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that lead to faulty, illogical statements. Logical fallacies often masquerade as reasonable statements in a written argument, but they represent either a writer’s attempt to manipulate readers or errors in the writer’s reasoning process. Generalization occurs when someone draws a conclusion based on inadequate evidence. Stereotyping is a common example of hasty generalization. For example, it is faulty to come to the conclusion that all senior citizens leave bad tips at restaurants based on a few experiences with some old folks who have.

17. The either-or fallacy, also called the false dilemma, limits the choices to only two alternatives when more exist. For example, Either stop criticizing the president or move to another country falsely implies that completely supporting elected officials is a prerequisite for living in America, to the exclusion of other options. A false analogy claims that two items are alike when actually they are more different than similar. The statement If we can put a man on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for cancer is faulty because space science is very different from biological science.

18. A false cause asserts that one event leads to another when in fact the two events may be only loosely or coincidentally related. A common type of false cause is called post hoc, ergo propter hoc, which is Latin for “after this, therefore because of this.” For example, Ever since we opened that new city park, the crime rate has increased suggests that the new park caused a change in criminal activity. There are many more likely causes. Slippery slope arguments suggest that an event will cause a “domino effect,” a series of uncontrollable consequences. Some argue that the anti–gun control and pro-choice movements use the slippery slope fallacy when they say that any limitation of individual rights will inevitably lead to the removal of other civil rights.

19. A personal attack, also known as an ad hominem attack, criticizes a person’s appearance, personal habits, or character instead of dealing with the merits of the individual’s argument. The following example is faulty because the writer attacks the person rather than the person’s argument: If Senator Williams had children of her own, we could take seriously her argument against permanently jailing all child abusers. • The bandwagon effect, also known as an ad populum appeal, implies that something is right because everyone else is doing it. An example is a teenager asking, “Why can’t I go to the concert next week? All my friends are going.” • False authority means citing the opinion of an “expert” who has no claim to expertise about the subject at hand. Using celebrities to advertise products unrelated to their careers is a common example of this tactic.

20. An irrelevant argument is also called a non sequitur, which is Latin for “it does not follow.” This flaw occurs when a conclusion does not follow from the premise: Ms. Chu is a forceful speaker, so she will be an outstanding mayor. Ms. Chu’s speaking style does not reflect her administrative abilities. • A red herring is a fallacy of distraction. Sidetracking an issue by bringing up totally unrelated issues can distract people from the truth. The following question diverts attention from the issue of homelessness rather than arguing about it: Why worry about the homeless situation when we should really be concerned with global warming?

21. Begging the question is also called circular reasoning. The supporting reasons only restate the claim. For example, in the statement We shouldn’t increase our workers’ salaries because then our payroll would be larger, the idea of increased salaries and a larger payroll essentially state the same outcome; the reason simply restates the claim rather than supporting it. • Emotional appeals, such as appeals to fear, tradition, or pity, substitute emotions for logical reasoning. These appeals attempt to manipulate readers by reaching their hearts rather than their heads. The following statement attempts to appeal to readers’ pity rather than their logic:

22. This woman has lived in poverty all of her life; she is ill and has four children at home to care for, so she should not be punished for her crimes. Slanted language involves biasing the reader by using word choices that have strong positive or negative connotations. Calling a group of people involved in a protest rally a mob elicits a negative response from readers, whereas referring to the group as concerned citizens receives a positive response.

23. In many instances, of course, you can’t actually expect to change your reader’s mind, which means your goal is to demonstrate that your point of view has its own merit. If you think that your audience is likely to read your point of view with hostility, you might consider using a Rogerian argument. Rogerian argument, based on psychologist Carl Rogers’s communication principles, suggests that even hostile readers can respect your position if you show that you understand their viewpoint and treat it with respect

24. The structure of a Rogerian argument • Introduction:Sets the stage for the position that is argued in the essay. • Thesis statement:States the topic and position you want to argue. • Common ground:Explains the issue, acknowledging that your readers likely don’t agree with you. Speculates and respectfully gives attention to the points of agreement you and your readers likely share concerning the underlying problem or issue about your topic. You might even acknowledge situations in which your readers’ position may be desirable. This may take one paragraph or several, depending on the complexity of the issue.

25. Discussion of your position:Gives evidence and reasons for your stand on the topic, as in a CLASSICAL ARGUMENT. • Conclusion:Summarizes why your position is preferable to your opponent’s. You might, for example, explain why a particular situation makes your position desirable.

26. Structure of a classical argument • Introductory paragraph: Sets the stage for the position argued in the essay. It gains the reader’s interest and respect. In some cases, it provides background information on the topic or problem. • Thesis statement: States the position that the writer wants to argue. • Evidence and reasons: Supports the position that the writer wants to argue. Each piece of evidence or reason usually consists of a general statement backed up with specific details, including examples. Generally, each reason will be the topic sentence of a paragraph. Organize your reasons in a logical sequence that will be effective for your audience. Common sequences include moving from most familiar to least familiar or from least important to most important.

27. Rebuttal (objections and responses to them): Presents the opposition’s position and then argues against that position. Writers can position this information in one of three ways: after the introduction, before the conclusion, or in a point-counterpoint format throughout the essay’s body. • Concluding paragraph: Wraps up the essay, often with a summary of the argument, an elaboration of the argument’s significance, or a call to action for the readers.

28. Guidelines for revising a written argument Does your claim take a position on a debatable topic? Do your evidence and reasons support the claim? Is the evidence sufficient, representative, relevant, and accurate? Do you cite sources correctly? Is your argument structured effectively? Do you use appropriate logical, emotional, and ethical appeals to convince your audience? Have you avoided logical fallacies?

29. Your Assignment As a class, we will select a topic about which you have strong feelings one way or the other. Using one of the argumentative methodologies discussed in class, write a two to three page essay explaining and defending your position. You must use at least one literary source in your text. Be sure to cite it in the APA fashion.