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RSA

Public Key Crypto RSA. RSA. CSCI284 Spring 2007 GWU Sections 5.1, 5.2.2, 5.3. How does Alice send Bob the decryption key in private key crypto?. If Alice wants it such that anyone can decrypt her messages, but know that they came from her

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RSA

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  1. Public Key Crypto • RSA RSA CSCI284 Spring 2007 GWU Sections 5.1, 5.2.2, 5.3

  2. How does Alice send Bob the decryption key in private key crypto? • If Alice wants it such that anyone can decrypt her messages, but know that they came from her • Suppose she could make the decryption key available in a public place • This would require that the decryption key should not give any information on the encryption key, in particular it should not be equal to it CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  3. How does Alice send Bob the decryption key in private key crypto? contd • If she wants it so that only Bob can read her messages, and Bob is ok with anyone sending him messages in this way • Suppose Bob makes his encryption key available publicly • No one should be able to compute the decryption key from the encryption key • This is the dual of the previous case CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  4. Public Key Cryptography Two injective functions f and g such that fg=I i.e. messages encrypted with one can be decrypted with the other; functions include association with key f cannot be used to find g and vice versa One is made public, the other kept private Encryption with public function provides confidential transmission, decryption with public function provides authentication CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  5. One-way function A one-way function is easy in the forward direction, difficult in the reverse direction. Example: f(x) = xa mod m CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  6. Trapdoor One-way Function A trapdoor one-way function is easy in the reverse direction for someone with access to a trapdoor (secret information enabling easy inversion). Example: if f(x) = xa mod m where gcd(a, (m))= 1, and (m) = pq for primes p and q, knowledge of p or q is a trapdoor CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  7. RSACocks (’73), Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (’76) n = pq, p and q (large) primes P = C = Zn K = {(n, p, q, a, b}: ab 1 mod (n)} fK(m) = ma mod n gK(m) = mb mod n CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  8. Efficient exponentiation(from Memon notes) Usual approach to computing xc mod n is inefficient when c is large. Example: 551involves 50 multiplications mod n Instead, represent c as bit string bk-1 … b0 and use the following algorithm: z = 1 For i = k-1 downto 0 do z = z2 mod n if bi = 1 then z = z x mod n How many multiplications? k = 2ceiling(log2c) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  9. Example Calculate 551 mod 7 efficiently 51 = 110011 = 25 + 24 + 21 + 20 551 = ((((52)2)2)2)2 (((52)2)2)2 52 51 How many multiplications did you need? CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  10. 551 mod 7 CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  11. RSA: Key generation Find p and q (two large random primes) n pq (n)  (p-1)(q-1) Choose random a invertible mod (n) s.t 1 < a < (n) i.e. a s.t gcd(a, (n)) = 1 Use Euclidean algorithm to find b=a-1mod (n) Not known how to determine (n) without p and q One key: (n, a) other key (n, b) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  12. Example CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  13. A Trapdoor One-way Function? • RSA encryption is believed to be a one-way function with the factorization of n as the trapdoor. • It is not known if encryption really is one-way • It is not known if there are other trapdoors • However, for security, it is certainly required that it not be possible to factor n CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  14. Security of RSAIs it based on hardness of factoring n? • It is not known if: • factoring a product of two primes into its prime components is • solvable in polynomial time • NP-complete • there are other trapdoors to RSA, i.e. other ways of breaking it in general • Factoring is an easy problem in the quantum computing model. CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  15. Computational Complexity Computational complexity of the following operations on x (k bit) and y (l bit), k l: • x + y • x – y • xy • Floor(x/y) O(l(k-l)) • gcd(x, y) O(k3) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  16. Computational Complexity mod n Computational complexity of the following operations on mod n, where n is a k-bit integer: • x + y • x – y • xy • x-1 • xc c< n O(k2log c) = O(k3) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  17. RSA: Computational complexity • 512 bit primes, n is 1024 bits • Encryption: b3 where a plaintext character is b-bits • Decryption by brute force: 2bb3 • Key generation: Primes? O(b2), O(b3) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  18. Encryption of blocks of symbols Block ABCD…, each symbol is base N (e.g. N=2, 16) Convert a block of a few symbols to an integer mod n RSA encrypt Convert back to base N Example. CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  19. RSA Decryption Show that fK and gK are inverses f(g(x)) = xba mod n = xt(n)+1 mod n = x xt (n) mod n What do we do now? CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  20. We will need • Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) • Lagrange’s Theorem CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  21. CRT: Solve congruences What is x? 17x  3 mod 101 5x  2 mod 7 CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  22. Chinese Remainder Theorem There is exactly one number modulo xy which is bmodx and Bmody if x and y are relatively prime. Proof: Suppose not. Then: First number = ax + b = Ay + B Second number = cx + b = Cy + B (a-c)x = (A-C)y • y | (a-c)x  y | (a-c) because x and y rel. prime • a = my + c • first number = mxy + cx + b = second number modulo xy CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  23. Determine a number x given x = ai modmi for i = 1 … n gcd(mi mj ) = 1 ij Let M = i mi And Mi = M/mi Find yi such that yiMi = 1 mod mi Then x = (I aiyiMi) mod M Example. CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  24. So we have shown that: There is exactly one number that satisfies the congruences, and that it can be determined using the formula provided. Define : ZM  Zm1  Zm2  ….  Zmr (x) = (x mod m1 x mod m2 ...…x mod mr) Example. CRT is equivalent to saying that  is bijective (one-to-one, i.e. injective; and onto, i.e. surjective) CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  25. Order of an element Smallest number such that repeated group operation on the element gives the identity That is, for any ggroup G with operation ○, i is the smallest number such that o(g) = i  g○ g ○...○g = group identity Example { i times CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  26. Lagrange’s theorem on the order of a group element Theorem: Suppose G is a multiplicative group of order n (i.e. the group operation is multiplication) and gG. Then the order of g divides n. Example: multiplicative group. True also of additive groups. Example: additive group. CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  27. Lagrange’s theorem on the order of a group element - II Proof: Consider the following relation: a  b iff axi = b for some i • is an equivalence relation because: • axo(x) = a • If a  bthen b = axi and a = bx-i and b  a • If a  b and b  c, then b = axi and c = bxj = axi+j and a  c Hence, the cosets of this relation partition the group and are of equal size. Example: the relation for some x and composite n CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  28. Lagrange’s theorem on the order of a group element - III Hence, the size of any coset divides the size of the group if it is finite {e, x1, x2, …xo(x)} is a coset of size o(x) Because any coset that contains x = {a s.t axi = x  i} = {a = x1-i  i} = {xj  j } Hence o(x) | n Example, composite n CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  29. Euler Phi function(number of invertible elements in Zm) If m = pq, 1, 2, 3, …p, ..2p, ..3p, …qpq numbers divisible by p 1, 2, 3, …q, ..2q, ..3q, …pqp numbers divisible by q pq only number counted twice. No other numbers. • pq – p – q + 1 = (p-1)(q-1) invertible elements CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  30. Can also show previous result using CRT CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  31. RSA Decryption Show that fK and gK are inverses f(g(x)) = xba mod n = xt(n)+1 mod n = x xt (n) mod n = x mod n if x Zn* (By Lagrange’s Theorem) What if x  Zn\Zn*? CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  32. x xt (n) mod n = ? For x  Zn\Zn* Write Zn = ZpX Zq Use CRT: x  (x mod p, x mod q) = wlog (0, d) (because x  Zn\Zn*) x(n) = (0, d(n)) = (0, 1) x. x(n) = (0, 1) (0, d(n)) = x CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  33. A simple inefficient algorithm for generating a prime • Generate a b-bit random number • It is prime with probability 1/ln 2b = 1/(ln2  b) = O(1/b) • Generate enough and will be done, in O(b) complexity. • How do you check if it is prime? CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

  34. Eratosthenes Sieve If want a prime of length b bits, list the numbers 2 to 2b/2 Starting from the beginning, delete all multiples of each prime: delete 4, 6, 8, …; 6, 9, …… At the end will be left with the primes Check if these primes divide your randomly generated number If not, it is prime. CS284-162/Spring07/GWU/Vora/RSA

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