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Research Paradigm

this is a Presentation focus on the research paradigm which helps you how to do a research with the academic framework

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Research Paradigm

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  1. Identifying Research Paradigms -Zhu Hua

  2. paradigm • In science and philosophy, a paradigm  is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates（假定）, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field. • from the Wikipedia

  3. paradigm Overarching constructive framework The nature of research (that a researcher brings to a study) paradigm A general philosophical orientation Meta-thinking

  4. What’s the essential role of paradigm in research design Paradigm determine research design and data collection method(s) and analysis and not the other way around. Just like what sort of building is being constructed before ordering materials or setting critical dates for completion of the project stages -De Vaus

  5. The issue of paradigm in the context of IC studies • Given its connection with multiple disciplines • Since each discipline has different takes on what culture is ,what Intercultural Communication is about, the role culture plays in everyday life.

  6. Two classifications of the key paradigms • Ontological（存在论）-形而上学 • 存在论（Ontology）是哲学的核心领域。顾名思义，存在论即关于“存在”的理论，是关于存在是什么以及存在如何存在的理论。 • Epistemological（认识论）-辩证法 • 认识论是探讨人类认识的本质、结构，认识与客观实在的关系，认识的前提和基础，认识发生、发展的过程及其规律，认识的真理标准等问题的哲学学说。

  7. Ontology Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relation; It often deals with questions concerning what entities exist or may be said to exist and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences.

  8. Reality (ontological) questions: • What is culture and what is not culture? • Is there such a thing as a cultural norm? • How does culture influence individuals’ communication behaviors or practice? Is there a cause-and-effect relationship between culture and individuals’ communication behaviors or practice? • What role do individuals, power or ideology play in constructing culture?

  9. Epistemology • Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much of the debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification.

  10. Knowledge and researcher(epistemological)questions: • Is it possible to isolate culture or cultural norms for research purposes? • What do researchers do with culture or cultural norms? Do researchers seek to discover and describe them; use them as an explanatory factor; use them to predict what is going to happen in Intercultural Communication; interpret them in relation to other factors such as power, ideology; or apply them to inform or improve practice? • How to researchers account for problems in Intercultural Communication?

  11. 1.The positivist Paradigm • Studies following this paradigm set out to identify patterns and the causal effect of culture on communicative behaviors and practices.

  12. Positivist approaches rely heavily on experimental and manipulative methods. • These ensure that there is a distance between the subjective biases of the researcher and the objective reality he or she studies.  • This generally involves hypothesis generation and testing. • Typically, quantitative methods are used. 

  13. Research (typically quantitative and experimental methods) is evaluted based on three criteria: • Validity • Reliability • Generalizability

  14. the case study with the guidance of the the positivist Paradigm cultural values studies to categorize national cultures by the Dutch psychologist Geert Hofstede

  15. National Culture • Using research data from a multinational company (IBM) with subsidiaries in more than 60 countries, he identified four largely independent dimensions: Power Distance (large versus small), Uncertainty Avoidance (strong versus weak), Individualism versus Collectivism and Masculinity versus Femininity. The relative positions of 40 countries on these four dimensions were expressed in a score on a 0-100 point scale. Replications by Hofstede and other researchers have extended the number of countries covered to 76.

  16. Organisational Culture • Next to and separately from his studies in national culture, Geert Hofstede with a team of collaborators has in the 1980s conducted an in-depth study of organizational cultures in ten Danish and ten Dutch organizations. This study is described in a separate chapter in his books since 1991. It has also led to the identification of six dimensions, which however should not be confused with the six national culture dimensions and are not necessarily relevant in all countries and all organizations. They are not based on values but on strategic practices, which unlike national values can to some extent be monitored by the organization’s management, with the support of skillful consultants and coaches. This kind of consulting and coaching is a second activity of the hofstede centre.

  17. 2.The Interpretative paradigm • Studies following this paradigm seek to uncover and interpret culture through the context where it exists,and are often carried out in the tradition of ethnographic study of culture.

  18. Interpretive approaches rely heavily on naturalistic methods (interviewing and observation and analysis of existing texts). • These methods ensure an adequate dialog between the researchers and those with whom they interact in order to collaboratively construct a meanful reality. • Generally, meanings are emergent from the research process. • Typically, qualitative methods are used.

  19. What kind of research do you think can be in the guidance with the interpretive paradigm?

  20. 其實早在一百多年前，德國學者就認為人類科學之研究應該更具詮釋性(hermeneutical)，以便詮釋其所研究的對象（指人類）在環境中互動的意義。一九二○至一九三○年代，美國的人類學家亦用來研究美國原住民的文化，後來更推及研究美國城市、小鎮以及鄉村地方文化。直到一九五○年代，人類學家把學校當作一個文化實體加以研究，於是產生了教育人類學(Educational Anthropology)新的研究領域。科學教育家則較晚採用詮釋性研究法。直到史鐵克(R.E. Stake)和依史利(J.A. Easley)在一九七八年出版〔科學教育的個案研究〕(Case Studies in Science Education)之後，詮釋性研究才開始為科學教育界所廣為接受，而成為重要的研究方法之一。

  21. 3.The Critical Paradigm • Martin＆Nakayama defined the critical paradigm in IC studies as one that addresses issues of macro contexts.(historcial,social,and political levels),power,and the hidden and destabilizing aspects of culture.

  22. The Critical Paradigm assumes that there is a 'reality' that is apprehendable.  This is a reality created and shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic and gender-based forces that have been reified or crystallized over time into social structures that are taken to be natural or real.  People, including researchers, function under the assumption that for all practical purposes these structures are real.  Critical theorist believe this assumption is inappropriate.

  23. Critical theoretical approaches tend to rely on dialogic methods(话语分析）; methods combining observation and interviewing with approaches that foster conversation and reflection.  This reflective dialogic allows the researcher and the participants to question the 'natural' state and challenge the mechanisms for order maintenance.  This is a way to to reclaim conflict and tension.

  24. What kind of research do you think can be in the guidance with the critical paradigm? • Discourse analysis

  25. 4.The Constructivist Paradigm • the constructivist paradigm pays attention to the subjective nature of meaning-making and argues that intercultural differences and cultural memberships are socially constructed

  26. Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning • Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. • In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices.

  27. Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

  28. 5.The realist paradigm • Contray to the constructivist paradigm,the realism paradigm calls for a “realist” view of the relationship between structure and agency.

  29. the realism paradigm acknowledges both agency of individuals' behavior is constrained by the parameters of broad societal norms and inherited structures of belief, power,opportunity and so on.

  30. they have brought interesting insights to two key issues in IC studies: • one is the intersctionality of cultural norms with other norms or forces that may be in operation. • the other is the issue of cultural identities

  31. A vedio for you to understand the paradigms in research better!

  32. Thank you for your attention!

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