Language Policy in the Soviet Union

Language Policy in the Soviet Union Chapter 4: The Baltic States

Introduction to the Baltics • Declared independence after Bolshevik revolution, became part of USSR 1944-45, last regions annexed to USSR • Estonian is Finno-Ugric, Latvian & Lithuanian are Baltic (I-E); all have written traditions since 16th c • 1989 • Latvia: 54% Latvian, 30% Russian • Lithuania: 80% Lithuanian, 10% Russian • Estonia: 65% Estonian, 30% Russian

Introduction to the Baltics, cont’d. • In post-WWII era, USSR did not have resources to immediately develop Russian-language education in the Baltics • Intense Russification in Brezhnev era • 1978 nation-wide decree imposed Russian from pre-school through university • Lithuania and Estonia held off, did not institute Russian in 1st grade until 1980-1, and both declared themselves independent countries in 1990 (though not recognized by USSR)

The Estonian SSR • High literacy rate, near 100% at time of annexation • Prior to annexation, most influential foreign language was German • By late 1970s Russification perceived as a threat to linguistic and cultural identity • Student protest in Tartu in 1980 – crushed by police, and Russification went forward

The Latvian SSR • Information on use of Russian vs. Latvian in instruction is not clear • Latvians tended to learn Russian, but the reverse was not always true • Latvia suffered great losses during WWII, and there was a shortage in the labor force – Russians and “Russianized Latvians” (those who had sided with Russia in WWI and subsequently lived in Russia) moved in to fill these posts • Friction between Latvians who were viewed as “unreliable” by the Russians and Russianized Latvians • Russians were concentrated in the cities, which “became oases of Russian culture and traditions”

The Lithuanian SSR • The largest Baltic state, with the best-established literary language, but dialectal differentiation is strong and impedes comprehension • Lithuanian resisted Soviet “liberation” and regime into the early 1950s • Proportion of ethnic Russians remained low

The Lithuanian SSR, cont’d. • Lithuanian, Polish, and Russian were the languages of instruction and Russian was taught in all schools • Impact of Russian was greater in higher education and specialized schools • Russification becomes intense in 1970s • Massive influx of terms from Russian, imposed by decree (rather than allowing Lithuanian to develop words of its own)

Reform and Revolt • 1980s there was alarm about Russification in all Baltic states • Russian required for higher education and spread in media • Industrialization happened quickly in Baltics, bringing more people into cities and thus intensifying Russification, and numbers of Russian immigrants • This all led to anti-Soviet animosity

Reform and Revolt, cont’d. • 1988 demonstrations & revolts begin in Estonia and spread through Baltics • Language issues were a key factor • 1989 all three Baltic states declare their languages state languages, local Russians protest discrimination • 1989 Estonian law gave non-Estonian state employees in public service 4 years to learn Estonian

Reform and Revolt, cont’d. • 1990 Lithuania declares independence, 1989 they passed a law on language similar to Estonia’s • Latvia lagged behind, but also stipulated that state employees must learn Latvian and suggested graduation examinations in Latvian • 1991 Independence of all Baltic states recognized by Soviet Union

Language Policy in the Soviet Union