西方文明史

1. 西方文明史 第五講：　希臘化時代、羅馬 劉　慧　　教授 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣3.0版授權釋出】

2. The Hellenistic and the Roman Civilizations • The Persian Empire (559-331) • Alexander the Great (r. 336-323)and his Empire • Hellenistic Society • Hellenistic Art • Hellenistic Philosophy • The Roman Republic to 133 BCE • Foundation myths; constitution;expansion

3. The Persian Empire The Hellenistic World at the death of Alexander the Great, 323 BCE

4. His father Philip of Macedon (r. 359-336) united Greece • battle of Chaeronea 338 BCE • Professional army • Alexander conquered • 334-331 Persia; • 330 Bactria; • 327-326 Indus River • Pattern of rule: a mixture of Greek and Persian • Greek-speaking governors, Greek settlers. • Intermarriage: to breed a new upper class • ‘Oriental’ despotism; glamour and ostentation: dress, court etiquette, self-proclaimed god

5. The successor states • Kingdoms of the Seleucids, Antigonids, and Ptolemies, • 323-238 (Parthian dynasty in Iran); -146, -30 (became part of the Roman world) • Growth of trade and finance in a vast trading area • City/ polis • The kingdom as a collection of cities • New, splendid cities as administrative centres; • public parks, museum, library, paved streets, theatre • Cosmopolitanism: ‘citizen of the world’, identity and way of life no longer centred on the polis, but on the kingdom or the entire Hellenistic world Ephesus

6. HellenisticCulture • Diffusion of Greek Culture; fusion of east and west • Patrons: • Art, literature and science as source of prestige • Looking for unique items • Extravagant and sentimental, • Or light and undemanding: escapism • Meander’s comedies of romantic love; the pastoral poetry • Or displaying formal skills, most obviously in ungainly, ‘unnatural’ postures • The end of the polis as the centre of human endeavours • Philosophers on the good life: Stoicism, Epicureanism

8. Hellenistic architecture stressed magniloquence, grandeur and luxuriance, which was partly derived from standards set by the Egyptians and Persians. The Lighthouse of Alexandria

9. The Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns

10. Hellenistic sculpture: extreme naturalism Sculptors endeavoured to recreate facial furrows, muscular distensions and complex folds of drapery, and to express extreme feeling, of unusual persons or dramatic moments. The Dying Gaul, c.220 BCE Old Market Woman, 2nd century BCE

11. The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c.200 BCE, shows flowing drapery.

12. The Laocoön Group. 1st c BCE height 7’ Intense emotion and complex composition

13. Hellenistic Philosophy • The main goal: the pursuit of eudaimoniai(happiness) • Aristotle • Stoicism • The cosmos is an ordered whole in which all contradictions are resolved for the ultimate good • One is to submit to the order of the universe (as it is good). Tranquility of mind will then be attained. • Epicureanism • Everything is the product of a fortuitous concourse of atoms • based on the materialistic ‘atomism’ of Democritus c.450-400 • Since there is no ultimate purpose in the universe, the highest good is pleasure • Moderate satisfaction of bodily appetites, mental pleasure of contemplating excellence and satisfactions previously enjoyed

15. The founding of Rome 2.1 Constitutional changes in the early republic 2.2 Imperial expansion • To 264 BCE • To 146 BCE • The triumph • The latifundia 2.3 The crisis of the late Republic • Populares vs. Optimates • Who should benefit from the profits of a wealthy state? • Further expansion • The Monarchy c. 753-500 • The Republic c. 500-27 BCE • The Early Republic c. 500-264 BCE • The Wars with Carthage 264-146 BCE • The Late Republic 134-27 BCE • The Empire 27 BCE- • The Early Empire/ the Principate 27 BCE-180 CE • The Third-Century Crisis 180-284 CE • The Late Empire/ the Dominate 284-476/565

16. Fascis United States CapitolRoman Capitoline Hill

17. 1. The Founding of Rome • The Italian peninsula: inhabitants • The Etruscans • Not Indo-European • By 6thC BCE: a confederationof cities. Declined after 500 • The Greeks • Immigrants since 8thC BCE • Culturally advanced • The Romans • 2ndM BCE crossed the Alps • Romulus founded Rome c. 753 BCE • Aeneas the Trojan • Dido, queen of Carthage • 350 BCE; Virgil 70-19 Romulus, Remus and the She-wolf

18. The Intervention of the Sabine Women 1796-1799 Jacques-Louis David

19. 2.1 From monarchy to republic • Etruscan king overthrown c.500 • Legacy: a fear of king; equality among the elite • Res publica, ‘public thing’ • Constitution of the republic • Imperium • 2 consuls, praetors, aediles, quaestors • the dictator • the tribunes • the Senate • the Assemblies • The ‘struggle of the orders’ 494-287 BCE:a ‘Glacial’ political evolution • Patricians (10%) and plebeians

20. 471: tribunes 2-10 (power of veto, inviolability); plebeian assembly • 451: Law of the Twelve Tables • 367: consulship open to plebeians • 287: plebeian legislation binding on all Romans: plebiscite • Consensus between the ‘two heads’ of the republic: the Senate and the Roman people • In effect, oligarchy, plutocracy • -133 26 families provided ¾ consuls; 10 provided ½ • A patron and his clients

21. 2.2 Expansion to 146 BCE • Controlled almost the entire peninsulaby 265 • Defensive-offensive • 264-241 the First Punic War • 218-201 the Second Punic War • Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus • 149-146 the Third Punic War • Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus • 200-197 Macedonian War • 192-188 Syrian War • 171-167 Macedonian War • LuciusAemiliusPaullus • 148 Macedonian War

22. The nature of Roman imperialism • Rome demanded manpower from the Italians • Not an aggressive power? • Slow to annex • E.g. the Macedonian wars • Assisting allies • But: Saguntum before 2nd PW; the East • Defensive war • Carthaginian ‘WMD’ before 3rd PW • Virgil; the jus gentium • Roman, remember by your strength to ruleEarth’s peoples – for your arts are to be these:To pacify, to impose the rule of law,To spare the conquered, battle down the proud. • A militaristic society

23. Glory, pietas, public spirit, competition • The cursushonorum • Young aristocrats had to serve 10 campaigns before standing for office • no distinction between the civilian and military command structures • Highest ambition was for a triumph • ‘Remember you are only a man’ Rubens, A Roman Triumph, 1630

24. 2.3 Crisis in the Late Republic,133-31 • Some consequences of empire • The Roman upper class became Hellenized • Art, literature, philosophy, education, creature comforts • Spread of latifundia (great estates) • Smallholders dispossessed - proletariat • Ex-farmers moving into the cities, whose votes could be bought • Slaves • Populares (populists) vs. Optimates (constitutionalists, traditionalists) • Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, tribune of 133 • A precedent for the use of force in political disputes • Generals with personal armies became political rulers: imperialistic conquests continued

25. Gaius Marius enlisted propertyless volunteers • 112-104 Numidia • 105-102 tribes in Southern Franceand Northern Italy • Sulla vs. Marius over Mithridatic campaign • 86-82 Mithridates VI of Pontus • Pompey reconstructed the Near East • 67 pirates; 64 Mithridates VI of Pontus, Syria • Caesar in the west • 58-49 Gallia • Pension, personal loyalty • Prestige of Rome

26. Oligarchic government – • dictator-generals andcivil wars: 49-46, 44-42, 32-30 – • empire • Marius • Elevated to the consulship by the plebeian partyin 107 and reelected 6 times • Supported by his army, a general could easily seize power • Sulla • Named dictator in 82 for an unlimited term by the aristocratic faction in the Senate • Expanding the power of the Senate, reducing the authority of the Tribunes

27. Pompey, Julius Caesar • The cause of the people • Vying for fame. P: Syria, Palestine; C: Gaul • 52: turned enemies. P was elected sole consul and took the opportunity to deprive C of political power • Civil war 49-46: in Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor • Caesar: • 46 BCE: dictator for 10 years; 44: dictator for life • to make war and peace, to control state revenues • Settled veterans and urban poor on unused lands • Go west: brought civilization to Iron-age Europe • Citizenship for Spaniards and Gauls • Assassinated on the Ides of March in 44. Civil war 44-42

28. 44 BCE Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian (63 BCE-14 CE) • Joined Mark Antony and Lepidus in Rome to fight the aristocratic group responsible for Caesar’s murder. Won the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE • Quarrel between Antony and Octavian. Civil war 32-30 • Antony made an alliance with Cleopatra → struggle between East and West. • 31 BCE battle of Actium: a century of civil strife was over

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