Cognition

1. Cognition Memory, Thinking, and Language

3. Cognitive Level of Analysis (IB) • The products of our biological machinery can be seen in our cognitive system, which includes our cognitions, emotions, and behaviors • General Learning Outcomes (IB) • Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis • Examples: mental representations guide behavior, mental processes can be scientifically investigated • Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

4. Cognitive Processes (IB) • Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies • Evaluate models or theories of cognitive processes (perception can be included in this as well) • Explain how biological factors can affect cognitive processes • Discuss how social or cultural factors affect cognitive processes • Cognition and Emotion (IB) • To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion • Evaluate different theories of how emotion can affect cognitive processes

5. While we are learning more about memory every day, those in the field of psychology are still unsure exactly what parts of the brain are involved and where it is all stored. Memory- A system that encodes, stores and retrieves information. The storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.

6. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks • According to the information-processing model, the human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns. • It does this through three steps: • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval

7. Encoding • Encoding-the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system. • In most cases, encoding is automatic and happens without our awareness. Other encoding, however, like these notes, require extra encoding effort called elaboration to make the memory useful. • Elaboration involves connecting a new concept with existing information.

8. When we are exposed to stimuli and encode information, we do it in three ways: • Semantic Encoding • encoding of meaning • including meaning of words • Acoustic Encoding • encoding of sound • especially sound of words • Visual Encoding • encoding of picture images

9. Processing a word by its meaning (semantic encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a later time.

10. Storage • Storage- the retention of encoding material over time. • In terms of storing material, we have three stages of memory • Sensory Memory • Working Memory (short-term memory) • Long-term Memory

11. Synaptic Changes and Storage One physical change in the brain during memory storage is in the synapses. Memories begin as impulses whizzing through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace. The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potentiation. Long-term potentiation- A biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is believed to be the neural basis for learning and remembering associations

12. Strengthening LTP • Research suggests that the best way to remember things is to study them and then sleep! • Once LTP has occurred, even passing an electrical current through the brain will not erase well stored memories. • More recent memories will be wiped out • People who have a concussion and cannot remember what happened just before or after the injury have not had a chance to “consolidate” their memories to the long-term

13. Retrieval Retrieval- The locating and recovering of information from memory. It takes only a split second to access a properly encoded memory. As marvelous as the human memory system is, it sometimes makes errors, distorts information or fails us completely.

14. Eidetic Imagery (photographic memory) Eidetic imagery is an especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare. Eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute detail and portray the most interesting and meaningful parts accurately. These images can last as short as a brief moment, or as long as days. Eidetic imagery tends to be more common in children, and seems to decline as a person’s language abilities increase. Eidetikers report that their vivid imagery can clutter their minds and interfere with other thoughts.

15. Attention to important or novel information Sensory input Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Encoding Retrieving Three Stages of Memory We encode information and store it in one of three types of memory, depending on what we need the information for. Our memory works like an assembly line, and before information can make it to our long-term memory, it must first pass through sensory memory and working memory.

16. Sensory Memory Sensory memory is the shortest of the three stages of memory and generally holds sights, sounds, smells, textures and other sensory information for a fraction of a second. It’s the job of sensory memory to hold the barrage of incoming sensation long enough for your brain to scan it and decide which stream of information needs attention. George Sperling suggested that sensory memory holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness. Sensory memories last just long enough to dissolve into the next one, giving us the impression of a constant flow.

17. Sperling’s Test George Sperling flashed a group of letters for 1/20 of a second. People could recall only about half of the letters When he signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. Thus, Sperling found that the storage capacity of sensory memory can be 12 or more items even though only 3 or 4 actually enter consciousness.

18. Not all sensory memory consists of images, each sensory receptor has its own sensory register. Also, sensory images have no meaning associated with them, that is the job of the next stage, working memory. Working Memory Often referred to as short-term memory. It is the place where we sort and encode information before transferring it to long-term memory, or forgetting it. Generally, it holds information for about 20 seconds, far longer than sensory memory. Most research suggest that we can hold seven pieces of information in our working memory, though it varies slightly.

19. Short-Term Memory Test • Finding your Short-term memory capacity. • You will be presented with letters that will appear on the screen for about 3 seconds. Write down as many as you can remember after they disappear. • Z:\Short-Term Memory Test AP.ppt • Z:\Mr. Short-Term Memory on Yahoo! Video.flv • Z:\My Videos\Finding Nemo - Short Term Memory Loss.mp4

20. Short-Term Memory Test • U M • T Z L D • K X C E J O • A V C Y I S E H • L B F Q R P M A U X • Z Q E C T B U M O N R V

21. As we have seen working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration. • We do have coping mechanisms, however: • Chunking • Rehearsal

22. Chunking • A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit of memory. • By creating these chunks, a process called chunking, we can fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory. • Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-657-4100 • What are some other examples of chunking??

23. Rehearsal • Another memory technique is called maintenance rehearsal. This is a process where information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory. • This process does not involve active elaboration. (assigning meaning to the information)

24. Washington D.C. Levels of Processing In working memory, information can be elaborated on (elaborative rehearsal) or connected with long term memories. Levels-of-Processing theory says that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long term memory is easier to remember.

25. Long-Term Memory As far as anyone knows, there is no limit to the duration or capacity of long term memory. Long term memory is essentially all of the knowledge of yourself and the world around you. Unless an injury or illness occurs, this memory is limitless.

26. Structure and Function of LTM

27. Procedural Memory (implicit)- the part of long term memory where we store memories of how things are done. “how to” skills such as riding a bike, tying shoes, playing a musical instrument. Declarative Memory (explicit)- the part of long term memory where we store specific information such as facts and events. Requires more conscious mental effort than Procedural Memory Example: Driving directions to a specific location. Evidence of Declarative Memory can be seen when people roll their eyes or make facial gestures while searching for specific memories.

28. Declarative memory has two divisions: • Episodic Memory-This is the portion of memory that stores personal events or “episodes.” • Storage of things like time and place. • (recent vacation, car accident, ending relationship) • Semantic Memory-This portion of memory stores general knowledge, facts and language meaning. • This is specifically where all the information you “know” is stored. • Like an encyclopedia or database.

29. Two parts of the brain that are involved in memory are the hippocampus and the amygdala. Most long-term memories make an immediate stop in the hippocampus on their way to their final destination in long-term storage. In a process called consolidation, information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memories. The amygdala seems to play a role in strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections.

30. Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia-The inability to form memories from new material. The inability to transfer new concepts and experiences from short-term storage to long-term memory.

31. The Tragic Case of H.M. Removal of his hippocampus and amygdala in order to stop seizures He has never been able to recognize the people who have taken care of him for the past 50 years. The 9/11 attacks, the moon landings, the computer revolution have left no trace in his mind He is always shocked to see an aging face in the mirror H.M. is a man caught in the present moment, which fades away without being captured by memory Clive Wearing Z:\My Videos\Man without a memory - Clive Wearing [BBC - Time_ Daytime].mp4

32. Retrograde Amnesia- The inability to remember information previously stored in memory. • As memories form, neurotransmitters collect at the synapses, (before absolute threshold is crossed). These are called memory traces. • A sharp blow to the head, or electric shock can prevent these traces from consolidating, making it hard to recall that information.

34. Flashbulb Memories • Out of all of our memories, a few are exceptionally clear and vivid. We call these flashbulb memories. • These tend to be memories of highly emotional events. Typically people remember exactly where they were when the event happened, what they were doing and the emotions they felt. • JFK’s Assassination • 9/11 • Can you think of any other examples from your own life?

35. Retrieval When dealing with long term memory retrieval, there are two types of memory: Implicit memory- How to skills; muscle memory—throwing a ball Explicit memory- Facts and events General rule: a memory is implicit if it can affect behavior or mental processes without becoming fully conscious. Explicit memories always involve consciousness. But what about studying??? What are the best methods??? What will help us store and more easily retrieve information from our classes??? Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 1 of 5_ _Beliefs That Make You Fail... Or Succeed_.mp4 Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 2 of 5_ _What Students Should Know About How People Learn_.mp4 Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 3 of 5_ _Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning_.mp4 Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 4 of 5_ _Putting Principles for Learning into Practice_.mp4 Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 5 of 5_ _I Blew the Exam_ Now What__.mp4

36. Retrieval Cues • Retrieval cues are the search terms we use to activate memory—think of a Google search. The more specific you are, the better the results will be. • Some memories are easily remembered, while others are much harder to bring up. For example, if you draw a blank on a test, it may be a result of the wording on the test not being the same as the wording you used while studying.

37. Recall and Recognition • Memories can be cued in two ways: • Recall- a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented material. • Ex. Essay test; police sketch of a suspect • Recognition- a retrieval method in which one must identify information that is provided, which has previously been presented. • Ex. Multiple choice test; police line-up

38. Activity • I will show you an old school photo of a celebrity and ask you to identify who it is with no hints. • This is testing your recall – I am asking you to recall all of the celebrities you’ve ever seen that could possibly fit your impression of the picture. You’ll find that this is probably pretty tough. • Next, I will offer you a list of possible celebrities to choose from that might belong to that photo (like a multiple choice test). • This is testing your recognition – by asking you to choose the answer from a list of possibilities, you will probably find that when you have the opportunity to recognize the individual in question, it is easier to come up with a match. • Ready? 

39. Recall • Who is this?

40. Recognition • A. Brad Pitt • B. Gordon Ramsay • C. Ryan Seacrest • D. Mike “The Situation” Sorentino

41. Recall • Who is this sweet-looking girl?

42. Recognition • A. Madonna • B. Katy Perry • C. Jenna Elfman • D. Jennifer Aniston

43. Recall • Who is this fine young man?

44. Recognition • A. Eminem • B. David Schwimmer • C. Johnny Knoxville • D. Taylor Lautner

45. Recall • Who is this gorgeous gal?

46. Recognition • A. Jennifer Lopez • B. Eva Longoria • C. Fergie • D. Nicole "Snooki" Polizzi

47. Recall • Who is this lovely lady?

48. Recognition • A. Lisa Rinna • B. Julia Roberts • C. Kim Kardashian • D. Megan Fox

49. So which do you think is easier? Recall or Recognition? Why?

50. Other Factors Affecting Retrieval • Encoding specificity principal- the more closely the retrieval clues match the way the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered. • Taking an exam in the classroom where you learned the information vs. in the Gym or Manor • Mood-congruent memory- a theory which says we tend to selectively remember memories that match (are congruent with) our current mood. • Has an affect on how people are treated for medical conditions. • Doctors assess what to do with you based on your complaints and how much you complain • Depressed people often receive different treatment than those who are upbeat when both suffer from the same problem.