Chapter II

1. Chapter II Inflectional Paradigms

2. Contents 1. The Noun Paradigm A. Noun Plurals B. Noun Possessive 2. The Verb Paradigm A. Suppletion B. Aspects in The Verb Phrase C. Mood in the Verb Phrase D. The Comparable Paradigm

3. Paradigms • A paradigm is a set of related forms having the same stem but different affixes. • Ex. • Head: ahead, behead, header, headlong • headship, heady, subhead. • Paradigms are also formed by the words to which the inflectional affixes are attached. These are called inflectional paradigms

4. Inflectional Paradigms Are of Three Types 1. Noun Paradigm • 4 forms: stem – plural – possessive – Plural Possessive • Ex. • Doctor doctors doctor’s doctors’

5. 2. Verb Paradigm • It has 5 forms Stem pres. 3rd person sing. Present part. past tense past part. Show shows showing showed showed/n Ring rings ringing rang rung

6. 3. Comparable paradigm • It has 3 forms • Stem comparative superlative • Sweet sweeter sweetest • Lively livelier liveliest

7. In the paradigms above the meaning of the stem remains constant. • the suffixes produce the differences in meaning among the forms of each paradigm. • Membership in one of these inflectional paradigms is one of the signals that enable us to group words into 4 of the major parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

8. Structure Class • In addition there is a pronoun paradigm which differs from the previous three in that it is not a stem-and-affix group but a small and closed set of words of fixed form. Structure class

9. The Noun Paradigm

10. This four-form paradigm is maximal, and not all nouns have all the four forms. Many nouns do not take the possessive forms because an of structure often takes the place of the {-s ps} morpheme. • Ex. • The ceiling of the room------the room's ceiling

11. In the spoken language we cannot always be sure which s morphemewe are hearing, because the possessive and the plural have identical forms--/-s/,/-z/, and /-әz/ except in the case of irregular plurals. • Ex. The doctors seminar

12. Exceptions 1. Tennis, courage, haste (only the form of the stem) 2. Clothes, trousers, environs (do not have singular forms) 3. Economics, linguistics, mathematics (do not have plural forms) • 4. oats, pliers, suds (can either be singular or plural)

13. Noun Plurals • The ways of distinguishing singular from plural nouns. • A noun is singular if it means one and plural if it means more than one. Note- “I like your hair” Physics Several salmon

14. There three useful tests for number in the noun • 1. a noun is singular if it can take one of these substitutes: he/him, she/her, it, this or that. It is plural if it can take one of these substitutes: they/them, these or those. • White sand—it • Phonetics—it • Trousers—them

15. The number of a noun may be signaled by a modifier such as several, many, this, that, these, those, fifteen or by a pronoun reference such as his/her/its, their. • Many fish • Note— • The modifier some can be used with • a singular or plural noun • Ex. some cake—some cakes

16. When a noun functions as subject of a verb, its number is sometimes shown by the form of the verb • Ex. • Measles is a contagious disease • The fish swims in the pond • The goods are on the way • The fish swim in the pond

17. If the verb has a form that does not change for S or P (past tense except for was and were) one can usually substitute a present tense form or the present or past tense of be, ex. • The goods came (come) late. • The goods came (are) late. • The goods came (were) late.

18. Collective Nouns • Collective nouns represent a collection or unit of individuals such as tribe, family, team, committee • Collective nouns, may be either S or P in meaning when they are S in form. • Speakers use S forms in connection with such words when thinking of the unit as a single whole, but they will use plural forms when intending the separate individuals within the unit.

19. There are three regular plural allomorphs • /-s/, /-z/ and /әz/ • cats—fads—kisses • In addition to the regular –s plural there are several small groups of irregular plurals. • 1. three nouns still retain the –en plural • 2. another group has a Ø suffixal plural. • The words in this group are the names of edible animals, game animals, fish and birds. Some have both forms.

20. 3. seven common nouns form their plural by a replacive allomorph. • Man, woman, goose, tooth, louse, mouse. • 4. one set of nouns has as the stem of the plural an allomorph that is different from the stem of the singular • Claves, children, knives, mouths • Some nouns ending in /-f/ or /-θ/ do not change. Ex. Chiefs—other have 2 forms • Ex. Youth, youths

21. Noun possessive • It has the same phonologically conditioned allomorphs as the plural: /-s/, /-z/ and /-әz/, plus a zero allomorph as in students’. • The term possessive is not satisfactory label because a variety of different semantic relationships can exist between the possessive noun and one that follows • As shown below:

23. A noun possessive is ambiguous when it expresses more than one of the above relationships at the same time. • Ex. His son’s loss grieved him • In making a choice between the inflected possessive (student’s) and the periphrastic of structure (of the student) there is no guidelines. • The tendency is to use the inflected form with animate nouns and the of structure with inanimate nouns • Ex. ??

24. Our knowledge of the noun paradigm helps us single out nouns. • A word is a noun if it has two or more forms and not a noun according to this paradigm if it has only one form. • Ex. Bravery—together--daughter

25. The verb paradigm • Verbs have three, four or five forms. • Those with four are the most common Stem pres. 3rd person sing. Present part. past tense past part. Show shows showing showed showed/n Ring rings ringing rang rung

26. Each of these 5 forms has its own uses: • 1. the first form is the stem. It occurs after to, after aux. such as can and will and in the present tense except for 3rd person singular • Ex. ? • 2. the 3rd person sing. Is the form used with the pronouns he, she and it or with sing. Words or word groups for which these pronouns will substitute. • Ex. ?

27. The morpheme {-s 3d} has the same allomorphs as the plural and possessive • 3. the present participle {-ing vb} is not actually a present tense form. The label is misleading. • It combines with 7 of the 8 forms of be to make verb phrases. Ex. They were writing • It is also used as a subjectless verbal when it is not the main verb and does not have a subject. • Ex. His passion used to be playing golf

28. A few verbs referring to mental activities are seldom heard in the {-ing vb} • Ex. * she was not knowing what to say • But they are common as subjectless verbals • Ex. Not knowing what to say, Jane maintained silence.

29. 4. the past tense takes on numerous forms. The most usual ones end in the allomorphs /-t/, /-d/ and /-әd/ • 5. the term past participle is also misleading because it is not used to convey a past tense notion. • The most usual form of the past participle ends in /-t/, /-d/ and /-әd/ Here they are allomorphs of the {-D pp}. It is used with have, has and had to form verbal phrases and with the forms of be to from the passive. • Ex. ?

30. Most verbs has the first three forms, with exceptions like does, says which have replacive allomorphs in the stem. • Analogical forms • ex,. *Knowed, *runned

31. suppletion • In the paradigm of the verb go we find: • Go goes going went gone • The form went seems out of place • The entire stem has been replaced by another stem. This total change within a paradigm is called suppletion. • The verb be is unique • The verb cut has three forms of the paradigm and could also fit into the noun paradigm

32. Aspect in the verb phrase • Aspect is the expression of meanings concerned with the continuity or distribution of events in time. Here are a few such meanings: • 1. Beginning of event • He began.. • 2. end of event • He stopped.. • 3. Frequency of action • She sang often

33. 4. Repetition of event • Jim pounded on the door • 5. Habitual performance of event • They used to … • 6. Single occurrence of event in time • I ate my lunch • 7. Progression or duration of event in time • I was eating my lunch • 8. Completion of event • I have eaten my lunch

34. In English aspectual meaning may be implicit in the meaning of the verb itself • Ex. Consider • Strike (6) • Beat (7, 4) • Aspectual meaning may also be determined by the context. The use of adverbials that answer the questions “when” and “how long” • Ex. He wrote a letter (6) • She wrote all morning (7)

35. English is said to have only two aspects • Progressive and perfective • Progressive or durative • Be+verb+ing • The event is thought of as progressing, going on, without any indication of an end. • Sth going on over a period in which other events happen,

36. Verbs of the progressive aspect are those whose meaning is capable of noticeable extension in time, verbs of activity and process, such as walk, throw, change. • Verbs of mental activity such as know, remember or nonaction verbs (ex. seem., own) are not used with this aspect. • They may be sleeping • *She is knowing everything

37. Perfective Aspect • Have+pp (present perfect) • It has 2 interpretations • 1. the event began in the past and has been completed. • 2. the event continues up to the present • An adverbial of duration (answering the Q “how long?”)is usually used with this aspect. Ex. She has attended college since last Sep. • adverbials of definite time (answering the Q “when?”)are not usually used with this aspect. Ex. *She has attended college last year

38. The perfective has other forms: • Past perfect__they had studied • Future perfect__ they will have studied • Each of these bears a sense of completion • The perfective aspect combines with the progressive (compound aspect) as in, • He has been working • HOW??

39. MOOD IN THE VERB PHRASE • The attitude of the speaker in relation to what has been said. • There are thee moods: • Indicative • Imperative • Subjunctive

40. The indicative (indicating a state of factuality and reality): "A cat sits on the stove." Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood. It simply states a fact of some sort, or describes what happens, or gives details about reality. • The imperative (indicating a state of command): "Give me back my money." One marker of the imperative is that frequently the subject does not appear in the sentence, but is only implied: "(You) Give me back my money."

41. 3. other, rarer mood is the subjunctive mood (indicating a hypothetical state, a state contrary to reality, such as a wish, a desire, or an imaginary situation). subjunctive verbs show up a. when you state something that is contrary to fact. b. They may also express indirect commands, requests, and wishes or following verbs such as ask, request or adjectives such as necessary or essential Ex. She suggested that I be the cook. I wish I were in Italy

42. the comparable paradigm This paradigm includes words of these groups: • Nearly all one-syllable adjectives, e.g. small • Some two-syllable adjectives, especially those ending in –ly or –y such as, lovely • A few adverbials of one or two syllables. E.g. fast • One preposition, near as in, she sat nearest to the door

43. Other adjectives and adverbs usually take more or most • A few adjectives have suppletive and irregular forms in the comparative and superlative, such as good • Good better best

44. Thank you