Introduction to Special Education: Making a Difference Seventh Edition

1. Chapter 5 Learning Disabilities Introduction to Special Education: Making a DifferenceSeventh Edition

2. Chapter Objectives • List the key features of the IDEA ’04 definition of learning disabilities. • Discuss the different types of learning disabilities. • Explain how an individual’s response to intervention (RTI) is assessed. • Explain what is meant by the practice of “early intervening” and why it holds great promise. • Describe two data-based practices that make a difference in the learning outcomes of students with disabilities.

3. Learning Disabilities • A learning disability is a condition that can cause significant problems in both school and life. • Learning disabilities have been a source of controversy for the past fifty years. • Some question the existence of “learning disabilities.” • The concept of learning disabilities originated in the U.S., but is now accepted worldwide. • Research focusing on the challenges that students face has generated remarkable instructional strategies that help to improve learning outcomes for students.

4. History of the Field • During the 1920s and 1930s, Samuel Orton, a neurology specialist, developed theories and remedial reading techniques for children whom he called “dyslexic.” • 1960s: Marianne Frostig developed materials for improving visual perception. • 1961: Professor Sam Kirk and colleagues published the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA), which was used to identify students with disabilities. • The term “Learning Disabilities” was coined by Professor Kirk in 1963.

5. History of the Field • In the 1970s, the field of learning disabilities debated the best way to remediate students’ academic deficits. • Process/product debate • In 1974, Don Hammill and Steve Larsen showed that perceptual approaches were seldom effective in teaching academic skills, but direct instruction techniques made a difference. • Many fads and invalidated practices have been proposed for solving a learning disability, including: • Teaching students to crawl again, regardless of age. • Special diets. • Removing fluorescent lighting. • Plants placed on desks. • These fads were promoted by the media, but had little scientific evidence to support their claims.

6. Challenges that Learning Disabilities Present • Difficulty organizing thoughts for writing • Problems with reading and listening comprehension • Difficulty conveying thoughts, feelings, or knowledge • In some cases, being uneasy and uncomfortable around others • Challenges with reading fluency

7. Learning Disabilities Defined • A condition of unexpected underachievement • Academic performance is significantly lower than would be predicted. • Comprises 4 to 5% of all students • Largest group of students with disabilities served in special education • Federal term: “specific learning disability”

8. Concerns Regarding Learning Disabilities • Delay in delivering needing services • Over-reliance on IQ tests • Overwhelming number of students identified • Inconsistency of characteristics observed in those identified

9. IQ/Achievement Discrepancy • Prior to IDEA ’04, most states required students to demonstrate a significant IQ/achievement discrepancy to be identified as having a learning disability. • Difference between potential (score on IQ test) and performance (academic achievement) • At least two years behind the student’s expected grade level

10. Criticisms of Discrepancy Formulas • IQ tests are not reliable and are unfair to many groups of children. • Results have little utility in planning a student’s educational program. • The process is not helpful in determining which interventions might be successful. • Outcomes do not relate to performance in the classroom, with the general education curriculum, or on statewide assessments. • Children must fail before they qualify for needed services.

11. Unexpected underachievement Lack of motivation or poor attribution Attention deficits Inability to generalize Faulty information processing Insufficient problem- solving strategies In some cases, learned helplessness and inactivity in the learning process Poor language and/or cognitive development Immature social skills Disorganization Characteristics of Learning Disabilities

12. Characteristics of Learning Disabilities • Negative Attributions • Frustration and failure in school can negatively affect students’ motivation and convince them there is nothing they can do to be successful (learned helplessness). • Non-Strategic Approaches to Learning • Students struggle with paying attention to the important features of a learning task. • Inability to Generalize • Students are unable to transfer learning from one situation to another. • Faulty Information Processing • Students may have difficulty with the input, output, or processing of information.

13. About 75% of students with LD struggle with social skills. This area affects most of the student’s life. Deficits in social skills are now considered a common and defining characteristic of learning disabilities (Kavale & Mostert, 2004). To improve social skills: Pair students with mutual interests. Integrate students with and without disabilities. Teach students with disabilities the importance of self-control. Model, coach, and provide specific feedback. Have student practice a social skill. Peer tutoring. Social Skills

14. Prevalence • Major issues of concern about the prevalence of learning disabilities • Size • Largest special education category • Cost • Special education costs are almost twice that of general education. • Misidentification • Students from diverse backgrounds are disproportionately represented

15. Causes and Prevention of Learning Disabilities • The cause is most often unknown. • Some may have proven brain damage. • A genetic link for some is becoming better understood (Hallahan et al., 2005). • There is also a strong relationship between low socio-economic status (SES) and learning disabilities. • Many factors associated with poverty could be contributing to LD, such as: • Little access to health care. • Lack of a supportive environment.

16. Assessment/RTI • IDEA ‘04 allows a new approach, Response to Intervention (RTI), as a means of identifying students with learning disabilities. • Pre-Referral • Multi-tiered instruction that provides more intensive instruction to students who are struggling (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Vaughn, 2008) • Universal Screening: All students in primary grades, beginning in Kindergarten or first grade, are tested at least once in the fall to identify students who may struggle. • Students at risk are identified for intervention. • Students receive data-based explicit instruction on reading. • Each student’s progress is monitored frequently using curriculum-based measurement (direct and frequent assessments) (Tier 1).

17. Assessment/RTI • Those students who do not meet academic expectations receive more intensive instruction (Tier 2). • Tier 2 instruction is typically delivered in small groups and lasts for at least twelve weeks. • Continual progress monitoring ensures that the student is making adequate progress. • Students who are not successful in Tier 2 either receive more intensive instruction or (depending on district policy) are identified as having a learning disability or are referred for further assessments (Tier 3).

18. Evaluation: Progress Monitoring • Mastery Measurement • A classroom assessment measure used on a frequent basis • Assessment on a specific skill being taught until mastery is achieved • Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) • Measures student progress directly from curriculum • All skills for the instructional year

19. Core Skills for Preschool and K • Mathematics • Counting objects • Reading one-digit numerals • Adding one-digit numbers when using manipulatives • Comparing two one-digit numbers when using number lines • Reading • Phonological Awareness • Rapid naming of alphabetic sounds and letters • Beginning phonics • Early instruction in these areas is vital!

20. Access to the General Education Curriculum • The power and importance of providing explicit instruction as soon as students begin to struggle are supported by key findings: • Students who fail to acquire core skills of reading soon after entering school become poor readers. • Students who have completed first grade without mastering phonological awareness tend to be poor readers in fourth grade. • Struggling readers in third grade tend to be poor readers in ninth grade. • Struggling readers do not catch up by themselves. • Early and intensive explicit instruction can help struggling readers. (Dion et al., 2004; Ehri et al., 2001; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2004)

21. Data-based Practices • Learning Strategies (Don Deshler and Jean Schumaker) • Strategy Instruction Model (SIM) • Gives students a plan and methods for success in school • Often assists students in learning and remembering information • Includes advanced organizers and mnemonics • Curriculum-Based Measurement • Frequent progress monitoring of students allows teachers to see which tactics are working and where they need to make adjustments.

22. Use of Technology • Technology can: • Augment an individual’s strengths. • Compensate for the effects of disabilities. • Provide alternative modes of performing tasks. • Assistive technology can reduce barriers • Software exists that: • Helps students take notes and create graphic organizers. • Recognizes and reads text to students. • Word processors help spelling, definitions, and grammar.

23. Transition • It is a mistake to believe that students with learning disabilities cannot succeed in postsecondary education. • Students with learning disabilities, however, do not access college at the levels they should. • By age 16, all students should have a transition plan in their IEP. • Carefully written and orchestrated transition plans can help lead students into college. • Students will require accommodations to succeed.

24. True Collaboration • Communication is open and ongoing. • Participation is voluntary. • Parity exists in the relationship. • Goals are shared. • Evaluation of student performance is continual. • Decision making is done as a team. • Resources are pooled. • Trust and respect are the basis of the partnership. • Planning time is scheduled.

25. What constitutes an appropriate education for students with learning disabilities, and in what setting should it be provided? Challenge Question