Chapter 10.3

1. Chapter 10.3 Qualitative Research: Observations

2. Observations • Participant observation: • The observer takes part in the situation being studied while doing the research. • Aimed to get an intimate perspective for the area of interest. • The researcher is responsible for building rapport while observing, participating, and producing clear data in field notes. • Researcher can be in dangerous situations or places uncomfortable to them. • The researcher’s continuous reflections become part of interpreting the data. • Example of participant observation: • Festinger et al (1956) research on a cult.

3. Observations • Participant observation cont. • Strengths • Combine emic dimensions (subjective) with etic dimensions (objective.) • Detailed and in-depth knowledge of a topic that can not be gained by other methods. • A good way to avoid bias (don’t impose their own reality.) • Provides a holistic interpretation of a topic and allows a generation on “theory” to explain observation. • Limitations • Difficult to record data in a timely manner and objectively. • Time-consuming and demanding in order to enter the group and build rapport. • Possible risk of losing objectivity by immersing themselves into a culture.

4. Observations • Non-participant observation: • The researcher is not part of the situation being studied. • Example of non-participant observation: researcher studying gender differences in teacher feedback in a school class. • Occasionally, deception is used in non-participant observation to help gain validity. • Can be done in a lab setting with on-way mirrors, but then questions association with real-life. • Critics believe that those who are knowingly observed may not behave naturally.

5. Observations • Naturalistic observations: • The research takes place in the participants natural environment without the researcher interfering with the observable behavior. • Ex: Kampman (1998) studied children develop friendships in kindergarten for 6 months. Made the determination that friendships should be developed at an early age to strengthen social competency. • Unstructured observations: the researcher records all relevant behavior which is unpredictable and hard to analyze. • Semi-structured observations: There is no predetermined categories of analysis but the researcher decides on what to look for making data collection easier. • Structured observations: predetermined features of behavior are recorded using a checklist. Easier for data collection and analysis is restricted to the categories previously decided which may skew results.

6. Observations • Naturalistic observations cont. • Strengths: • Ecologically valid in a natural setting (assumed that participants behave in a natural way.) • Can be used to collect data that would be impossible or unethical otherwise. (ex: Alzheimer’s disease) • Limitations: • Risk of people reacting to being observed (reactivity.) • Individual collection can cause problems in checking the data. (may use inter-observer reliability) • Ethical considerations with viewing people without consent.

7. Observations • Overt observations: • Participants know they are being observed. • Can include both participant and non-participant observations. • Considered ethical. • Consent may or may not be given (depends on the research.) • Quality of data depends on the researchers relationship with the participants.

8. Observations • Covert observations: • Participants are not aware they are being studied or not agreed to it. • Identity of researcher needs to be masked. • Used in areas where it is difficult to gain access. • Many ethical problems with covert observations. • Ex: Festinger et al (1956) and their work with a cult who claimed the world would end on a certain date with a flood. • What examples can you think of?

9. Observations • Preparing for an observation: • Arrangements need to be set up by the researcher. • Decision of a participant or non-participant observation. • Type of notes needs to be decided. • Descriptive, Inferential, or Evaluative. • Personal reflection needs to be taken into account. • Conducting the experiment: • Researcher meeting with participants to build rapport. • In participant observations, the researcher needs to remain objective. • Reactivity may occur along with researcher bias. • The data should be rich.

10. Observations • After the observations: • Post-observational interviews can be conducted. • The participants need to be debriefed unless it was a covert observation. • Analysis of the data: • Inductive approach to data analysis. • Begin to create a picture as data is collected and examined. • Field notes are often compared with data from other sources (interview transcripts, pictures, narratives, etc.)

11. Observations • Grounded theory analysis: • Description – provide a complete description of the phenomenon of interest. • Denzin 1978 – the context of the action, the intentions of the actors, and the process which the action is embedded are all included in the description. • Coding and connecting themes – organizing the data into categories. • The process is reading and rereading of the field notes. • A summary of the analysis needs to be written by the researcher so that independent readers can follow how and why connections are reached. • Memos – notes about notes

12. Observations • Grounded theory analysis cont. • Producing an account – elements of the analysis are a written account of the basis of the end product. • The theoretical framework is “grounded” or based on the categories identified during the observation. • Researchers may also use theoretical triangulation or alternative theories to explain the phenomenon. • Participants can be consulted to ask for support of interpretations. • Other researchers may be consulted to look critically at the findings to make sure there is enough support in the data.