Using These Slides

2. Using These Slides These PowerPoint slides have been designed for use by students and instructors using the Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity textbook by Conrad Kottak. These files contain short outlines of the contents of the chapters, as well as selected photographs, maps, and tables. Students may find these outlines useful as a study guide or a tool for review. Instructors may find these files useful as a basis for building their own lecture slides or as handouts. Both audiences will notice that many of the slides contain more text than one would use in a typical oral presentation, but it was felt that it would be better to err on the side of a more complete outline in order to accomplish the goals above. Both audiences should feel free to edit, delete, rearrange, and rework these files to build the best personalized outline, review, lecture, or handout for their needs.

3. Contents of Student CD-ROM • Chapter-by-Chapter Electronic Study Guide: • Video clip from a University of Michigan lecture on the text chapter • Interactive map exercise • Chapter objectives and outline • Key terms with an audio pronunciation guide • Self-quizzes (multiple choice, true/false, and short-answer questions with feedback indicating why your answer is correct or incorrect) • Critical thinking essay questions • Internet exercises • Vocabulary flashcards • Chapter-related web links • Cool Stuff: • Interactive globe • Study break links • Student CD-ROM—this fully interactive student CD-ROM is packaged free of charge with every new textbook and features the following unique • tools: • How To Ace This Course: • Animated book walk-through • Expert advice on how to succeed in the course (provided on video by the University of Michigan) • Learning styles assessment program • Study skills primer • Internet primer • Guide to electronic research

4. Contents of Online Learning Center • Student’s Online Learning Center—this free web-based student supplement features many of the same tools as the Student CD-ROM (so students can access these materials either online or on CD, whichever is convenient), but also includes: • An entirely new self-quiz for each chapter (with feedback, so students can take two pre-tests prior to exams) • Career opportunities • Additional chapter-related readings • Anthropology FAQs • PowerPoint lecture notes • Monthly updates

5. The Primates This chapter introduces students to the study of living, non-human primates. It discusses the basic classification of primates and all of the classes of living primates. It also examines the similarities and differences between non-human primates and humans. C h a p t e r 4

6. Definitions of Key Terms • Taxonomy: the assignment of organisms to categories. • Hominoidea (hominoids): the superfamily containing humans and apes. • Phylogeny: genetic relatedness based on common ancestry.

7. Phylogenetic Classification • Organisms are placed classifications, which are arranged hierarchically according to degree of genetic relatedness. • Phylogenetic classification is a descending hierarchy of classifications, from most inclusive to least inclusive (see figure 4.1 in the textbook). • Species are constituted by organisms whose mating produces viable and fertile offspring.

8. Phylogenetic Classification The principle classificatory units of zoological taxonomy.

9. Taxon Scientific (Latin) Name Common (English) Name Kingdom Animalia Animals Phylum Chordata Chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrates Class Mammalia Mammals Infraclass Eutheria Eutherians Order Primates Primates Suborder Anthropodea Anthropoids Infraorder Catarrhini Catarrhines Superfamily Hominoidea Hominoids Family Hominidae Hominids Genus Homo Humans Species Homo sapiens Recent humans Subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens Modern humans Humans in Zoological Taxonomy

10. Primate Family Tree The primate family tree. Source: From Roger Lewin, Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction, 3rd ed. (Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publication, 1993), p. 44

11. Homologies and Analogies • Homologies • Similarities that organisms share because of common ancestry are called homologies. • The presence of homologies is the principal factor in determining how organisms are assigned to taxonomic categories. • Analogies • Analogies are similarities between species that are the result of similar adaptation to similar selective pressures--analogies are not the result of common ancestry. • The process which leads to analogies is called convergent evolution.

12. Primate Tendencies • While the primate order is extremely diverse, its members do share a significant number of homologies derived from common arboreal ancestors. • Grasping (precision grip, thumb opposability, nails instead of claws). • Smell to Sight (eye placement, brain organization, and color vision all reflect a primate emphasis upon sight over smell--not that some of these features are not common to all primates in the same degree). • Nose to Hand (increasing reliance on sense of touch as opposed to muzzle, whiskers for information).

13. Primate Tendencies • Brain Complexity (the brain areas devoted to thought, memory and association are more elaborate and proportionally larger). • Parental Investment (single offspring births combined with longer development periods stemming from neotony). • Sociality (strongly associated with parental investment, cooperative social groups are selected for in part because of the needs arising from primate parenting).

14. Prosimians vs. Anthropoids • Prosimians and anthropoids constitute the two suborders of primates. • 30 million years ago, prosimians were driven from niches by better adapted anthropoids.

15. Lemurs and Tarsiers • Most of the remaining prosimians, by far, are lemurs. • These live only in Madagascar, which separated from Africa prior to the development of anthropoids. • Tarsiers survived in Asia, where there are monkeys, by adapting to night conditions (monkeys are not nocturnal). A crown lemur. Photo Credit: O. Landgrand/Peter Arnold, Inc.

16. Anthropoids • Vision • Evolutionary changes in vision probably occurred in response to a the pressures of an arboreal habitat. • Binocular, stereoscopic vision and color vision may have been selected due to the improved depth perception it endows (locomotion, catching insects, identifying edible fruits). • The arboreal habitat (climbing, feeding) and the increasingly social environment (mutual grooming, tool making) were likely factors in selecting for increased manual tactility. • Proportionately larger (than prosimians) brain mass and emphasis on memory and cognition were likely selected for by the social environment.

17. Platyrrhines and Catarrhines • There are two anthropoid infraorders: platyrrhines (flat-nosed, New World monkeys) and catarrhines (sharp-nosed, Old World monkeys, hominoids). • Unlike hominoids, monkeys’ rear and fore limbs articulate from their bodies as do dogs’. • Most monkeys have tails.

18. Platyrrhines and Catarrhines Nose structure of catarrhines and platyrrhines. Above is the narrow septum and “sharp nose” of a guernon, a catarrhine (Old World monkey). Below is the broad septum and “flat nose” of Humbolt’s woolly monkey, a platyrrhine.

19. New World Monkeys • New World monkeys’ traits: universally arboreal, some brachiate, some have prehensile tails (among primates, a trait exclusive to the New World). • The brachiation of New World monkeys and the brachiation of gibbons constitute an analogy. The prehensile tail of the Spider Monkey, a New World monkey.

20. Old World Monkeys • Old World monkeys are both terrestrial and arboreal. • Significant distinctions existing between arboreal and terrestrial Old World monkeys include size (arboreal monkeys are smaller than terrestrial monkeys) and sexual dimorphism (terrestrial males are significantly larger and fiercer than terrestrial females, while little or no such differentiation exists among arboreal monkeys.

21. Old World Monkeys Yellow baboons, an Old World monkey. Photo Credit: Jim Tuten/ Animals Animals

22. Apes • Old World Monkeys comprise the superfamily Cercopithecoidea, while humans and apes are in the superfamily Hominoidea. • Hominoidea is subdivided into three families. • Hominids (humans and their fossil ancestors). • Pongids (“great apes”: gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutan). • Hylobatids (gibbons and siamangs). • Recent biochemical evidence suggests that gorillas and chimpanzees are almost as closely related to humans as they to each other.

23. Gibbons • Gibbons are small, arboreal, mate for life and produce few offspring. • Their principal mode of locomotion is brachiation. Photo Credit: Michael Nicholas/Magnum

24. Gibbons The limb ratio of the arboreal gibbon and terrestrial Homo.

25. Orangutans • Orangutans relatively large (up to 200 pounds), solitary, and markedly sexually dimorphic. • Orangutans move between arboreal and terrestrial habitats. Photo Credit: Evelyn Gallardo/Peter Arnold

26. Gorillas • Gorillas are large (up to 400 pounds), the most sexually dimorphic of all primates, and are primarily terrestrial. • They live in relatively stable social groups, typically led by a mature silver-back male.

27. Gorillas Members of a mountain gorilla troop sit with primatologist Dian Fossey. Photo Credit: Peter Veit/DRK

28. Chimpanzees • There are two kinds of chimpanzee: the common (Pan troglodytes) and the pygmy (Pan paniscus). • Size range is up to 200 pounds, and sexual dimorphism is proportionally the same as in humans. • Chimpanzee social organization is relatively well-known, because of the longitudinal studies done by Goodall and other primatologists.

29. African Apes Map of the ranges of the three species of African apes. Source: From C. J. Jolly and F. Plog, Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.), p. 115.

30. Endangered Primates • Humans are the only hominoids that are not endangered. • Deforestation, poaching, and the capture of primates have all contributed to the demise of wild primate populations. In Africa, poachers shoot gorillas like these with high-powered rifles. Photo Credit: M. Gunther/Peter Arnold, Inc.

31. Endangered Primates Geographic distribution of the living primates. Source: From Rodger Lwein, Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction, 3rd ed. (Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1993), p. 45.

32. Human-Primate Similarities • Adaptive Flexibility Through Learning • Neotony and life in cooperative social groups allows primates to learn behavior from their fellows, rather than relying only on genetically encoded behaviors. • Learned behavior has been observed in monkeys as well as apes. • Predation and Hunting • Hunting is a regular and normal component of wild chimpanzee behavior. • Hunting by chimps is both opportunistic and planned. • Wild chimpanzees have been observed hunting consistently, using cooperative techniques, with some sex specialization (males hunt more than females).

33. Human-Primate Similarities • Tools • Tool use allows primates to adapt to a wider range of niches more quickly than physiological adaptation alone (although primates are not the only animals that use tools). • Wild chimps have been observed constructing tools. At Tanzania’s Gombe Stream National Park, chimps use specially prepared twigs to “fish” for termites Photo Credit: Jane Goodall/ National Geographic Society

34. Human-Primate Similarities • Aggression and Resources • The capacity for hunting exists among many different primates, but expression of this capacity can depend upon environmental pressure and opportunity. • Observations of chimps and orangutans indicate that aggressive behavior (“warfare,” in some chimp cases) may increase when territorial encroachment occurs.

35. Human-Primate Differences • Sharing, Cooperation, and Division of Labor • Sharing and cooperation is common to most primates, however humans do it much more complexly. • Human foraging bands tend to have a sexual division of labor (e.g., men hunt, women gather), other primates do not. • Homo sapiens is the only primate species that engages in food sharing consistently on a large scale. • Mating and Kinship • Human females do not experience estrus. • Marriage and kinship are two exclusively, universally human systems that give identity and stability to certain types of human relationships in a way that is absent from other primate social systems.

36. Sociobiology and Fitness • “Sociobiology is the study of the evolutionary basis for behavior.” • Types of Fitness • Individual fitness is the number of direct descendents an individual organism has. • Inherent in this notion, as seen in terms of natural selection, is the implication that any individual’s fitness competes with that of its conspecifics. • A model attributing a drive to protect one’s individual fitness to all organisms could not explain altruistic or self-sacrificing behavior. • Inclusive fitness is a theoretical concept developed to account for unselfish behavior and is defined as “reproductive success measured by the representation [in succeeding generations] of genes one shares with other, related animals”.