Ecology 生態學

1. Ecology生態學 2003 LS4143 曾晴賢(2765) URL: www.prenhall.com/stiling.hinet.net

2. 課程說明(Course Description) 藉由講述傳統生態學的基本觀念，導引以學習現代生命科學為主的學生，如何在自己的學習領域內，運用生態學的經驗和邏輯思惟，結合現代生物學的技術，讓未來的研究有更大的突破，同時有更宏觀的了解。

3. Textbook: • Ecology(Fourth Edition), by P. Stiling, 2002 • Published by Prentice Hall

4. 成績評定: • 學期成績 • ＝期中考*0.3＋期末考*0.5＋平常考*0.2

5. 課程時間表及授課綱要 週別 主題 授課章節 1 Introduction 1 2 Genetics and ecology 2 3 Extinction 3 4 Group selection and individual selection 4 5 Life history strategies 5 6 Population growth, physical environment 6,7 7 Competition and coexistence, Mutualism 8,9 8 Predation, herbivory 10,11 9 Parasitism, controls on population size 12,13 10 期中考 1-13 11 放假 12 Community ecology 14,15 13 Species diversity and stability 16,17 14 Succession and island biogeography 18,19 15 Trophic structure 20 16 Energy flow 21 17 Nutrients 22 18 期末考 14-22

6. Road Map Chapter 1: Why and How to Study EcologyChapter Outline • Ecology is the study of that which limits the abundance of plants and animals. We can study ecology at the level of individual behavior, populations, communities, or ecosystems. • Observing natural systems affords an insight into their workings, but field and laboratory experiments provide the most rigorous tests of ecological ideas. • Ecological measurement must be made at the spatial and temporal scale appropriate to the question being asked.

7. Case study-1

8. Case study-2

9. Lecture outline

10. Outline • Basic definitions of terms and field of study • Understanding the difference between observational studies, and field and laboratory experiments • Spatial and temporal implications in ecological interpretations

11. What Is Ecology? • Study of individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems • Study of interactions among and between organisms, and their environment • Importance to human activities

12. Example: Aswan High Dam (Figure 1.1) • Located on the Nile River in Egypt (Figure 1.2) • Potential benefits • Severalyears of irrigation reserves • Add 526,000 ha in arable land • Produce 10 billion kilowatts of electrical power annually • Protect country from catastrophic flood • Benefits to date • Saved rice and cotton crops from drought damage in 1972 and 1973 • Two to three crops annually, as opposed to one • Increased productivity and annual income from agriculture by 200% • 380,000 ha of desert are being irrigated for the first time • Unexpected ecological problems • Increase in the incidence of schistosomiasis (47–80%) • Decreased phytoplankton blooms and fish harvests in the Mediterranean (e.g., Sardine annual catch decreased from 15,000 tons to 500) • Increased need for fertilization ($100 million annually). Fertilizer production uses most of the energy generated by the Dam. • Farmers overwater their land, resulting in salt deposition (half of the irrigated acreage is affected by salt) • Proper ecological studies could have predicted resulting ecological problems of the dam

13. Ecologists—best-equipped scientists to study natural ecosystems • Investigating environmental change on the local, regional, and global scale • Reductionist analyses and experimentation • Adapted concepts from agriculture, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, chemistry, and mathematics • Analytical and portable equipment • Challenges for ecologists • Acid deposition • Global climate change • Increasing use of fertilizer results in huge N inputs to communities • Increasing use of pesticides • Species extinction • Ecology and Environmental Sciences • Four broad areas of ecology (Figure 1.3)

14. Behavioral Ecology • How behavior contributes to survivorship, reproduction, and population growth • Example: Forest tent caterpillars (Malacosoma; Figure 1.4) • Reside in silken tents and defoliate trees • Vulnerable to predators • Group living would appear to be counterproductive (i.e., assisting predators) • Benefits of group living • Multiple-layered large silken tents • Multiple and stronger silk trails to food sources • Pheromones to attract colony mates • Increased probability of propagating one’s own genes

17. Summary • Importance of ecology in addressing human perturbations • Four broad areas of ecology: behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystems ecology • Understanding ecological processes through the use of different ecological methods: laboratory, field and natural experiments, and modeling • Investigations must be conducted at the right spatial scale

18. Discussion Questions • What is the difference between ecology and environmental science? • What are ecological methods? How do we apply them to ecological questions? • In a local park, forest, or even in your backyard think about five ecological questions you could ask and the information you would need to answer them. Do your questions relate to behavioral, population, community, or ecosystems ecology or do they cross categories?

20. Fundamental knowledge of Ecology • Biochemistry • Molecular biology • Genetics • Evolution • Physiology • Developmental biology • Cell biology

22. The scope of ecology • Ecology and levels of biological organization • Subdisciplines in ecology • Sciences allied to ecology

24. The conceptual framework for ecological research • The scientific method • Reductionism versus holism • The limitations of experimental manipulation • Making inferences in ecological research • Statistical analyses and mathematical modeling • Proximate and ultimate explanations

26. Ecology: 生態學 Oekologie(E. Haeckel, 1869) Oikos(G): House 住所，棲息地 Logos(G): study 論述，學科 The branch of science dealing with the relationships of living things to one another and to their environment.

27. Ecology • Functional ecology: • How populations are maintained at a particular size and touches on behavior competition, predation.....。 • Historical ecology: • How populations have come to be this way and places great emphrasis on biogeography which presupposes knowledge of continental draft and of evolution.

28. ecologist生態學家 • 認知 = 偵探? • 創造 = 馬蓋先? • 邏輯思惟者

29. 生態學的歷史和展望 • 生態學的前史-博物學的時代 • 分類學的知識-種的概念之確立 • .形態及生理的分析 •  發育及習性的觀察 • 食物連鎖、競爭、生物群集-群集生態學 (種群) Community Ecology

30. 生態學的歷史和展望 1735 Reaumur 日平均氣溫總和（積溫）對任何一物候期（發育生理期）都是一個常數。 1766 J. G. Koelreuter & 1775 C. K. Sprengel: • 花的構造和受粉媒介昆虫習性 1749 G. L. L. de Buffon 哺乳類及鳥類的習性和競爭 1805 A. von Humboldt 植物分佈和氣候及地史的關係：等溫線對植物分布的意義。

31. 生態學的成立 • 1798. T. Malthus（人口論）:- Essay on population populations capacity geometric growth food supply increased arithmetically. • . Malthusian theory of population • . 巨大的生殖能力 • e.g. Oyster 8x107 eggs/yr. • Birds 275x108 ind/10yrs. • . Limiting reproduction • 自然界中不存在有巨大生殖能力的現象 • Struggle for existence • . Variation between individuals. • 每一個體間均有差異 • Natural selection

32. Limiting reproduction • 自然界中不存在有巨大生殖能力的現象 • Struggle for existence • . Variation between individuals. • 每一個體間均有差異 • Natural selection

33. Natural selection • 1809 J. B. Lamarck- Philosophie zoologique • . Use and disuse, Inheritance of acquired traits. • . giraffes, use longneck • . cave animaldisuseblind eyes. • . Reductive or vestigial structure • 1838 P. F. Verhulst: 種群生態學Logistic 方程式 • 1840 Leibig: 植物最低因子定律 • 1844 Gasparin: 植物發育起點溫度的確立

34. Species origin（物種起源） • 1859 C. Darwin: • . The origin of species by means of Natural selection or preservation of favored races in the struggle for life.

35. 生態學的歷史 • C. Lyell- Principles of Geology • . Physical world changed gradually • A. R. Wallace(1822-1913)- Nature selection, Island Life, Geographical Distribution of Animals. •  . All organisms are descended with modification from common ancestors. • . The mechanism for evolution was natural selection. • 1895 E. Warming: 植物生態地理學（植物分布學） • 1898 A. F. W. Schimper: 植物地理學（植物生理地理學） • 1913 Journal of ecology (UK)

36. 現代生態學的發展趨勢： 1.      更加往宏觀的方向發展：個體生態學種群生態學生態系統生物圈全球生態學（能量和物質的流動無國界） 2.      廣泛應用系統理論（系統生態學）：建立系統的模擬模型，模擬生態系統的行為和各種管理措施。應用最優化原理來控制和管理生態系統。 3.      與社會科學（尤其是經濟學）的結合：生態經濟學。 4.      應用生態學：生態工程，生態技術，生態建設，生態管理。 5. 量化生態學：植被的聚類分析、排序技術，種的多樣性研究，信息生態學