Chapter 3

1. Chapter 3 Unit 3: The Age of Exploration Europe and the New World: New Encounters, 1500 - 1800

2. Earlier Attempts at Exploration • Leif Erikson and Vikings - Nova Scotia and Newfoundland • Crusades - Middle East, “Holy Land” • Cultural Exchange via trade and written works Knights Templar

3. On the Brink of a New World: Motives • Three G’s: Gold, Glory, God • God and religious zeal • Work of Francis Xavier, Jesuit Missionary in East • English Puritans in North America • Gold (and other “goods”) • Gold and silver • Spices and other luxury goods (access to the East) • Glory • Medieval fantasy writings from far away lands • Economic advancement not allowed by more rigid socio-economic structure • New world allowed adventurous individuals to achieve fame and status

4. On the Brink of a New World: Means • Growth of Centralized Monarchies • New Technology • Better ships – Lateen Sail, Cannons • Compass • Astrolabe (latitude) • New Learning • Printed Books • The Travels of John Mandeville (14th century) • The Polos’ travel literature • Ptolemy’s Geography (1477) in Latin • Portolani • Better knowledge of wind patterns • Renaissance humanism and the emphasis on learning and curiosity

5. The Portuguese Empire • Portugal’s goals • Gain ally vs. Muslims • Trade opportunities • Extend Christianity • Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460) • Navigation School • Exploration of west coast of Africa • Slavery in Portugal • The Development of a Portuguese Maritime Empire • Bartholomeu Dias: rounds Cape of Good Hope but… • Vasco da Gama: reaches east coast of Africa and India by rounding Cape of Good Hope Ok! Ok! We can turn back! Don’t kill me!

6. The Portuguese Empire • Viceroys • Alfonso d’Albuquerque (1462 – 1515) • Fights Indian and Turkish forces • Spice trade monopoly • Torture and cruelty • Commercial – Military bases • Reasons for Portuguese Success • Guns • Seamanship • Permanence? I’ll beat you with this stick if you step out of line!

7. Voyages of the New World • Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506) • Reached the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492) • Additional voyages (1493, 1498, and 1502) • Additional Discoveries • John Cabot – New England for Henry VII • English route through White Sea to Russia • Jacques Cartier – North America for France • Pedro Cabral – South America (by mistake!) for Portugal • Amerigo Vespucci – Writes about voyages (“America”) • Nun˜ez de Balboa – Sails across Isthmus of Panama and into Pacific Ocean for Spain • Ferdinand Magellan –circumnavigates the Earth – sort of (death in Philippines) for Spain • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divides New World between Spain and Portugal • Written by Pope Alexander VI! • East of Good hope to Portuguese; west to Spanish Magellan and Tordesillas

8. The Spanish Empire • Treaty of Tordesillas provokes Spanish rush for lands • Conquistadores’ role • Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica • The Maya – agrarian; declined 800 • The Aztecs – warriors; uncentralized • The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire • Hernan Cortés (1485 – 1547) • Moctezuma (Montezuma) • Initially welcomed – believed to be a representative of the god Quetzalcoatl • Spanish then turned against Moctezuma and pillaged Tenochtitlan • Aztecs revolted and chased Spanish out, but then succumbed to smallpox while Spanish regrouped • Aztec Empire overthrown – with great violence

9. The Spanish Empire (Cont) • The Inca and the Spanish • Pachakuti transformed Inca empire into advanced state • Inca buildings and roads • Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475 – 1541) • Smallpox claims many – including emperor, triggering civil war • Atahualpa captured • Incas overthrown (1535) • Jared Diamond’s thesis: Guns, Germs and Steel Atahualpa captured; Diamond’s Guns, Germs and Steel

10. The Spanish Empire: Administration • Encomienda • Crown grants conquerors right to use native labor and collect tribute • In return, conquerors are to protect, pay and supervise the religious needs of the natives – did this happen? • Viceroys • Replaced encomienda system after its abuses were exposed • Served as regional civil and military governors for king • Viceroys assisted by advisory council called audiencias • The Church • Spanish crown’s authority over Church • Mass conversion of natives • Dominican, Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries • Spanish Inquisition Bartolome de las Casas exposed the mistreatment of natives by greedy conquistadores, leading to a shift in governing policies in the Spanish Empire

11. European Discoveries and Possessions in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

12. New Rivals on the World Stage • Spain and Portugal had led the way in the early stages of the “Age of Exploration” • By the 17th century, the Dutch had also become involved • Shortly thereafter, the French and English also joined the mix • Eventually, Spanish and Portuguese dominance in the New World faded • The impact of this competition instigated war at home and abroad, and drastic changes in the social and economic structure.

13. European Presence in Africa • Initial interest was gold and Portuguese established outposts on east and west coasts of Africa for this purpose • Dutch displaced their presence on the west coast • Dutch East India Company sponsored settlement in south Africa on Cape of Good Hope • Settlement evolved into farming community • Dutch settlers in S. Africa called “Boers”

14. Africa: The Slave Trade • Slavery in Africa not new • Initially, slaves were brought to Europe and the Middle East as domestics • Plantation farming escalates demand for slaves (sugar cane) • Triangular Trade • Up to 10,000,000 African slaves taken to the Americas between the sixteenth and nineteenth Centuries • High death rate during transit (Middle Passage) • Prisoners of War • Depopulation of African kingdoms • Political effects of slave trade in Africa (Benin Kingdom) • Power of local African leaders in the transaction • Criticism of Slavery (Enlightenment) • Society of Friends = Quakers

15. The Slave Trade: Middle Passage The journey aboard a typical slave ship took 100 days or longer. Many Africans did not survive the horrible conditions and contracted diseases or suffered from malnutrition. Mortality rates were 10% or worse. Despite the tremendous loss of life, slave owners did not encourage slaves to have children who would have greater immunities to New World diseases since they felt it was not as costly to buy more as it was to raise a child to working age.

16. The West in Southeast Asia • Portugal: did not have the means to sustain their far-reaching empire • Spain: Seized Philippines as a trade base, exchanging Asian silk for silver from Mexico • Netherlands (Dutch) • Seized Spice Islands from Portugal • Built fort in Jakarta for protection • DEI Company: Pepper plantations • Controlled most of SE Asia by end of 18th century • England: Only held one port in Sumatra • Mainland SE Asia generally resisted European presence • Europeans initially sought to pit factions against one another • Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, and Vietnam ultimately unified and resisted • Only loose trade relations were established between Euros and these areas

17. Europeans in India • The Mughal Empire under Akbar • Portugal: Pre-Akbar, limited presence • Dutch: Competed with English and Portuguese, but abandoned interests in favor of Spice Islands • France: Competed with England but did not get funding from French government (only had Pondicherry) • England: Increasing presence • Sir Robert Clive: fought French and Indian rebellion in Bengal • Freed British captives from “Black Hole of Calcutta” prison • Chief Rep. of British East India Company • Battle of Plassey (1757) secured Calcutta for Brits • Seven Years’ War British booted French out completely • Thriving COTTON trade (raw cotton refined in India, traded with SE Asia for spices that were returned to England)

18. China • Ming Dynasty (1369 – 1644) • At its height, greatly expanded size of imperial China • During this time, Portuguese explorers landed off coast of China (1514) with little fanfare • Disease ravages population (1630s), precipitating peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng • Last Ming emperor commits suicide in 1644 • QingDynasty (1644-1911) • Invading dynasty from Manchuria brings peace • Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong bring prosperity • Dynasty’s decline coincided with increasing European presence • Russia • sought furs and skins • formal trade relations developed in 1689 • England • sought silk and tea • given limited access to China from island off Cantonese coast • Lord Macartney demanded greater access in 1793 but Emperor Qianlong denied him Macartney Embassy arrives in China, but comes back empty -handed.

19. Japan Christians, GET OUT! • Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543 – 1616) • Centralizes leadership in Japan • Ends years of civil warfare and turmoil • Tokugawa Dynasty remained in power until 1868 • The Portuguese • Land in Japan 1543 and open trade • Francis Xavier: missionary activity • Japan interested in tobacco, clocks, eyeglasses, weapons and European military strategy • Missionaries interfere in Japanese politics • Expelled from Japan • Japanese Christians persecuted • Portuguese traders expelled shortly thereafter • The Dutch • Did not bring missionaries • Only Europeans allowed to maintain limited trade from Nagasaki for a few months a year Tokugawa Ieyasu takes control of Japan in 1603 and expells Christian missionaries, seen as undermining the shogun’s power.

20. The Americas • Spain and Portugal decline • Portugal in Brazil and Spain in South America • Both powers declined in 17th century • Faced competition from Dutch, English and French in the Americas • The West Indies • British held Barbados, Jamaica and Bermuda • French held Saint-Domingue, Martinique and Guadeloupe • Cotton, tobacco, coffee and sugar • “Sugar Factories” brought great wealth The colony of Saint Domingue became the wealthiest colony in the world by the 18th century. The “pearl of the Antilles” produced nearly half the sugar and over half the coffee consumed in Europe on the backs of poorly treated slaves. Toussaint L’Ouverture led a successful slave revolt in 1793.

21. North America • Spain’s claim to the Americas ignored by others • The Dutch • Henry Hudson’s discovery of the Hudson River in 1609 • New Netherlands: Dutch colonies stretched from Albany to mouth of Hudson River • Decline in 17th century after losing New Netherlands to English (New York) and bankruptcy of Dutch West India Co. • The English • Jamestown (1607) • Massachusetts Bay Company: religious freedom and economic opportunity provide the motivation • Thirteen Colonies: prosperous and independent despite mercantilist policies • The French • Canada claimed after Cartier discovers St. Lawrence River • Trade outposts for fur, leather, fish and timber, but no colonies • France neglected conquest efforts in favor of war at home • Lost territory in 1713, and all NA holdings in 1763 to British

22. South America • Spain’s hold on South America even began to slip • France and England break into South American trade after 1713 • Treaties of Utrecht and Blenheim end the War of Spanish Succession: Philip V (Bourbon) is the Spanish king. • All European powers collectively defeated combined forces of Spain and France. • Britain’s role on winning side gives them asiento or privilege of supplying slaves to South America in addition to gaining French possessions in North America. The massive loss of territory for Spain in the war of Spanish Succession (and the subsequent British gains) all resulted because this man, Charles II of Spain, failed to reproduce. Perhaps this was a good thing…

23. Impact of European Expansion: The Conquered • Devastating effects to local populations in America and Africa • In Americas, native populations obliterated by disease and culture squelched and replaced with Euro culture • In Africa, especially on coasts, populations decimated • Less impact in Asia • A few religious converts • Minimal lasting influence • Asian rulers limited contact with Europeans • SE Asian islands and India more affected • Multiracial society in Latin America • Mestizos and mulattoes • Greater racial diversity, but hierarchies remained Chart depicting various racial combinations in Latin America

24. Impact of European Expansion: Ecology of The Conquered • Horses and cattle to the Americas • Argentine Beef? • Plains Indians use of horses? • Transporting crops • Sugar cane and wheat to South America for plantation-style cultivation • Sweet potatoes and maize to Africa from Americas

25. Impact of European Expansion: Religion and The Conquered • Catholic missionaries much more active than Protestant • Franciscans, Jesuits and Dominicans established missions to confine and control natives • Native culture undermined • Displaced by European culture • Missionaries in China • Jesuits pointed to similarities between Christianity and Confucian teachings in China • Allowed ancestor worship to coexist with Christianity until Pope condemned • This reduced further conversion • Missionaries in Japan • Missionaries destroyed local temples and interfered with Japanese politics, wearing out their welcome. Missionaries converting natives; Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, a nun in Mexico and champion of women’s education

26. The Impact of European Expansion: The Conquerors • Opportunities for women • few white women came to colonies • Women from poorer or disgraced backgrounds had opportunities to marry “up” • Economic effects • Gold and Silver (Potosi mines in Peru) • Columbian Exchange exchanged plants and animals between Europe and New World • Horses, cattle and wheat from Europe • Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, chocolate, tobacco to Europe • Impact on European lifestyle • Chocolate, Coffee and Tea as drinks • Potato became the “super food” of Europe British Coffee House

27. The Impact of European Expansion: The Conquerors • European rivalries • Piracy common and state-sponsored! • Determined alliances in international wars • New views of the world • Gerardus Mercator (1512 – 1594) and his map (Mercator Projection) • Helped trigger more exploration • Psychological impact • Relative ease of conquering • Reinforces belief in superiority of European civilization and values

28. Global Patterns of the European States:18th Century

29. Toward a World Economy What? The Hapsburgs aren’t paying me back? Mother Fugger…! • Economic Conditions in the Sixteenth Century • “Price Revolution” – 2-3% inflation on most goods, including food • Wages did not reflect the increase • Influx of gold/silver + population boom as causes? • The Growth of Commercial Capitalism • Joint stock trading companies • Profits in shipbuilding, metallurgy and mining • New economic institutions • Family banks replaced by banking institutions (Fuggers bankrupt) • The Bank of Amsterdam • Amsterdam Bourse (Exchange) • Agriculture • 80% still worked in agriculture • Little changed in lives of peasants, whose lives often worsened

30. Mercantilism • Total volume of trade unchangeable • European powers competed for greatest share of it • Economic activity = war through peaceful means • Importance of bullion and favorable balance of trade (export more than you import) • State intervention • High tariffs on foreign goods • Use colonies as source of raw materials and as a market to sell manufactured goods from mother country Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France, financial minister to Louis XIV: Mercantilism at its best!

31. Overseas Trade and Colonies: Movement Toward Globalization • Transoceanic trade very valuable (luxury goods) BUT… • Intra European trade still dominated the volume of trade for most of the time period • By 1789, however, a shift in the balance of trade saw huge increases in overseas trade and much lower increases in intra-European trade • These changing trade patterns interlocked Europe, Africa, the East and the Americas

32. Witchcraft Craze! • Swept Europe in 16th and 17th centuries • Prevalent in England, Scotland, Switzerland, German States, France, Netherlands, New England • Occurred in both Catholic and Protestant regions • Likely a result of religious turmoil that defined the era Images of “witches” – ah, if only Freud had been around to analyze this! And what about the origins of the broomstick?

33. Witchcraft Craze – A History Satanic wheat! DIE! • During Middle Ages, witches were initially associated with Satan • During Black Death, Pope Innocent VIII issues bull • Mass extermination • Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer and MalleusMaleficarum Be gone, Satanic Horse!

34. Witchcraft Craze – 16th Century LOOK! It’s the mark of SATAN! I think it’s just a hickey… • Widespread panic ensues… • Nearly 100,000 people were convicted! • Nobody could escape punishment • Confessions were extracted by torture • Most targeted: single, older women – why?

35. Witchcraft Craze - Explanations Um…You’re all Satan’s emissaries… I’m here to whip the devil out of you. • Why did it spike in 16th-17th centuries? • Religious conflict • Commercial Revolution erodes communal values and encourages individualist spirit • Many more women were convicted • Died down in 17th century – why? I love my job.

36. Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – Origins • The last of the “religious wars?” • Bourbons vs. Hapsburgs? • Nations’ Ambitions? • Spanish Hapsburgs • Austrian Hapsburgs • Sweden and Denmark • Religious conflict or Political Conflict? • Calvinism had spread into German states • Peace of Augsburg (1555) only settled issue of Lutheranism • Protestants tried to seize control of previously Catholic states • Protestant and Catholic alliances formed to protect their respective states • Protestant Union • Catholic League • Austrian Hapsburgs attempt to consolidate power over German princes, and the princes sought allies from all over Europe…

37. 30 Years’ War: PhasesBohemian Phase, 1618-1625 • Nobles in Bohemia accept rule of Hapsburg Archduke/King of Bohemia Ferdinand • Eventually, they grow dissatisfied with his repressive politics and Uber-Catholicism • Defenestration in Prague • Miracle of the Virgin Mary…? Or a fecal cushion? Fecal matter! Here I come! Images of the defenestration of Prague. Mary’s Miracle or Mare’s Manure?

38. 30 Years’ War: PhasesBohemian Phase, 1618-1625 • Bohemian rebels seize power • Ferdinand deposed • Elector Frederick V, head of the Protestant Union chosen as leader • Ferdinand’s belligerence • Catholic Bavarians and the Catholic League • Battle of White Mountain • Frederick’s flight • Catholic victory! Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and eventually Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. His firm Catholicism was the proximate cause of the war.

39. 30 Years’ War: PhasesDanish Phase, 1625-1629 • King Christian IV of Denmark aids protestants • Catholic Albrecht von Wallenstein of Bohemia lays smack-down… • Danes return home with major losses • Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II imposes Edict of Restitution 3/1629 King Christian; Albrecht von Wallenstein

40. 30 Years’ War: PhasesSwedish Phase, 1630-1635 • GustavusAdolphus, King of Sweden intervenes… • New military strategy of the “Lion of the North” • Battle of Lutzen, 1632 • Battle of Nordlingen,1634 • Revocation of Edict of Restitution Gustavus Adolphus, like Christian IV before him, came to aid the German Lutherans, and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea.

41. 30 Years’ War: PhasesFranco-Swedish Phase, 1635-1648 Surrounded by Hapsburgs?! NO! • Political concerns trump religion • Cardinal Richelieu’s concerns over Hapsburgs surrounding France • French send in troops while the Swedes regroup in Germany - all on the Protestant side! • Success of French commander Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar • French success at Battle of Rocroi (row-kroy) in 1643 Cardinal Richelieu

42. The Thirty Years’ War territories and battles: a summary I’m the lion of the north

43. 30 Years’ War: Aftermath • Peace of Westphalia (1648) • Peace of Pyrenees (1659) • German states devastated • Pestilence, famine, and violence ravaged German lands • Holy Roman Empire rendered powerless as German states are further fractured • More separation of church and state • Emergence of FRANCE

44. Military Revolution? Dude. We’re being replaced by REAL armies. Bummer. Guess I need to find a real job. • New military tactics emerged following 30 Years’ War. • Influence of GustavusAdolphus’ tactics • Mercenary soldiers gave way to well-trained, disciplined national armies (The Last Valley, 1971) • Link between standing armies and absolutism? Mercenary soldiers

45. Rebellion? • Ongoing warfare and skyrocketing taxes • Nobles’ struggle to resist centralization • Many small but unsuccessful rebellions defined this turbulent era • Also helped motivate monarchs to fine-tune their military force

46. A Review • Reasons for witchcraft craze in early 17th century? • 30 Years’ War: • A religious conflict – or was it more? • Big Dogs Stink For Sure! • Main players • Devastation of German States

47. Discussion Questions • Why were the Portuguese so well positioned for overseas exploration? • How were the Spanish able to defeat the Aztecs? • What social and economic forces drove the Slave Trade? • How were the British able to achieve such a dominant position in Asia? • What impact did European colonization have on the colonized? • What economic changes occurred in Europe as a result of Mercantilism and Capitalism?

48. Web Links • The Slave Trade • European Voyages of Exploration • The Age of Exploration • Digital South Asia Library • Around the Indus in 90 Slides • Internet East Asian History Sourcebook • The East India Company • Virtual Jamestown