Democracy and Political Participation

1. Democracy and Political Participation

2. A definition of Democracy • Abraham Lincoln defined democracy in three ways… • Government of the People • Government by the people • Government for the people • But what does this mean in the modern age?

3. Government of the people • Standing for office and being elected is one way • Modern democracies require people to actively participate via voting, joining political parties or pressure groups and so forth. • This is known as participatory democracy. • In a modern democracy everyone has the opportunity to participate in politics. • In some societies (Australia) there are legal penalties for not voting and it is a legal requirement in there UK to return the voter registration forms

4. Government by the people • People engage in making decisions which directly affect them. • This would involve government consultation process e.g. currently concerning the Scottish referendum question to be put to Scots, the use of referendums… • This is known as Direct democracy where people actively participate in making decisions which affect them- constitutional changes involving devolution, the proposed changes to the electoral system for Westminster, on directly elected local mayors and the first election of police commissioners (November 2012) have all been put to referenda- notably the AV referendum and the later one on Scottish independence are binding (plebiscite) rather than advisory.

5. Government for the People • Those who govern do so in the broad interests of the people rather than of themselves... • The interests and needs of all sections of society , as far as possible, should be considered • Given the impracticality of making all decisions via a process of direct democracy, decisions are made by representatives hence representative democracy

6. Why democracy? • Origins are in C5BC Greece but disappeared until the 18th century. It has become the preferred mode of governance of the most economically advanced states… • Democracy establishes and protects freedom via political inclusion of all classes in the electorate, the establishment of a codified constitution which limits government power and establishes basic individual rights • Democracy protects minorities All groups must have access to the political process, the liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) warned against the tyranny of the majority • Democracy controls government power. Power tends to corrupt and there is the danger that those in power will accrue more power and govern in their own interests. Hence democracy ensures accountability via elections a recognised and legal opposition, free media etc… • Democracy encourages political participation People must have the opportunity to be informed and be involved in influencing decision making, hence crucial in preventing tyranny • Democracy disperses power Where power is excessively concentrated in the hands of a narrow elite democracy cannot flourish. It should be widely dispersed among people and non governmental associations in what is called civil society

7. Societies where democracy appears inappropriate • Those governed by a strict religious code where there is far less room for alternative belief • Cultures where people do not expect or desire personal liberty- in some Islamic states most aspects of life are governed by the teachings of the prophet Mohammed and the Koran. Islamic governments see it as their duty to oversee the moral and social principles of the Koran. • In times of crisis, aspects of democracy have been suspended in the face of the national emergency- war powers of the UK government in two World wars. Also consider the anti terror legislation in the wake of 9/11 with the introduction of indefinite detainment of suspected foreign nationals and later the introduction of control orders. • In some states such as Tanzania and Zambia, one party states were introduced as a means of tackling problems of economic development • Many democrats however have said that democratic principles can never be sacrificed under any circumstances- Nelson Mandela said people would prefer to be free than well fed.

8. Rights Reside within that state To vote in free elections Stand for office Equality before the law Fair trial Civil liberties Obligations Obey the law Accept legitimacy of the properly constituted government Pay taxes Citizenship- An individual has the right to live within a particular state and has certain rights but also obligations- these vary e.g. some states require military service- Turkey, Greece, Iran and Israel for example

9. Rights Adoption of the European Convention of Human Rights as the first formal codification of civil rights in the UK (Human Rights Act) Sign up to the Social Chapter of the 1993 Maastricht treaty which guaranteed employment rights Freedom of Information Act Obligations in return Active citizen should be aware of political issues and vote in elections Be involved in promotion of issues in which they are interested Be involved in community action- voluntary work, help in environmental projects, Neighbourhood Watch Join and be active in a political party Active citizenship- concept introduced by New Labour 1997 –informed by communitarian thinking behind Labour

10. Falling turnout in elections from 76% 1979 to 65.2% 2010 with 59.4% 2005 (lowest since the Coupon Election 1918). These figures are for general elections, turnout for local elections far lower. Decline in party membership from 4.12% electorate 1980 to 0.94% 2008. Partisan dealignment- people identify less and less with a particular party There is a perceived crisis of political participation. An inactive citizenry can lead to autocratic and arbitrary government On the other hand… Pressure group membership is higher Popular involvement in direct political action- 1990 poll tax riots. 2003-4 the Countryside Alliance mustered 300 000 to demonstrate against proposed ban on Hunting with Dogs. 2003 over 1m protest against Iraq War The role of the internet and social media a vital means of mass communication and mobilisation (clitivists) protests following the Iranian presidential election Evidence for a decline in political participation?

11. How can political participation be increased? • Compulsory voting- does it make citizens more aware and give them ownership of outcome of elections? Is it an infringement of civil liberty? An option is to include on the ballot options such as refusal to vote, don’t know or none of the above… • Lower the voting age to 16. Scottish teacher unions want this for the referendum on independence. Are they experienced or switched on enough? However 16 year olds can be required to pay tax therefore should they not have the right? People who join armed forces at 16 get the vote. • Making voting easier- extend the period of voting, placing ballot stations in more accessible places such as supermarkets, electronic voting- however this does raise security issues. • Compulsory citizenship lessons- but another form of PSHE. Only applies to the state sector. • Electoral reform- introduce alternative electoral system which more fairly reflects national mood but AV referendum was defeated in the 2011 referendum. • Use of the internet- government can involve people by internet polls. E petitioning- any proposal for a new law which has 100 000 signatures will be debated in Parliament. • Greater use of referendums including the innovation 2011 of the binding referendum. However, what if turnout low e.g. 1997 Welsh devolution referendum passed on a low turnout.

12. How the UK is becoming more of a consultative democracy • Coalition Government invited public participation in deciding how public expenditure might be reduced. • Many local authorities consult on how to allocate expenditure on services • After 2007 Downing street developed a system of e-petitions whereby the PM office respond to email campaigns on an issue which attract significant public support- 2007 1.8m signed up on an e-petition opposing scheme for road pricing • Use of referendums

13. Referendums and Initiatives • A referendum is… • Parliament and government decide to hold one. Until 2011 in the UK they have always been advisory but a binding referendum was introduced for the issue of reform of the Westminster elections. Normally a simple Yes or No but in 1997 Scotland a two question proposal- Scottish parliament and secondly with tax raising powers. The SNP government want a two question proposal for independence referendum in 2014- Independence or DEVOMAX. • In the UK until 2011, all referendums were advisory (Parliamentary sovereignty) and the government could ignore a vote for change on the basis that the turnout was too low. In the 1979 devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales the Yes vote had to be 40% of the electorate, although the vote was carried in Scotland, the government rejected it on basis the turnout was very low (Scottish wet weather). However, the Welsh devolution referendum 1997 was carried on a low turnout. Increasingly, governments have accepted the result. • An initiative is… • A referendum which is called for by the people. In some states of the USA there is a set procedure for this. A minimum number of genuine signatures required for the process to go ahead- in California, for example, an amendment to the state constitution signatures equivalent to 8% of the votes in last election for state governor. Within the UK there are groups calling for referendum on the UK membership of the European Union e.g. People’s Voice

14. Reasons for referendums are… • In the UK referendums tend to be held on constitutional matters. Increasingly, there is the belief that such changes which affect the governance of the UK should be based on popular approval, the latter also has the effect of entrenching change. The first such referendum held in the UK was in Northern Ireland when the electorate was asked whether the Province should remain part of the UK. • Parties and governments may be split on an issue- the first nationwide referendum in the UK on continued membership of the EEC was because the Labour Government of Harold Wilson was divided and ministers campaigned openly either for or against continued membership. A similar situation happened in 2011 with the campaign for electoral reform with Liberal and Conservative ministers polarising on the issue along partisan lines. • Political pressure- 1979 an unenthusiastic Labour Government (minority) dependent on Liberal votes in Parliament agreed to hold referendums on devolution, similarly 2010 the Coalition Agreement committed the Conservatives to passing legislation to establish a referendum on AV. • Growing belief that change in a local area should be based on the wishes of the local electorate. 2004 referendum on setting up devolved assembly in North East (70%+ no vote on 29% turnout) caused the government to drop an unpopular policy of rolling devolution in England. Also the no vote in all but one of the referendums on directly elected mayors in English cities 2012. Interestingly, the devolution act for Scotland established in law the principle of Claim of Right by which was established the principle of popular sovereignty in Scotland- only the Scottish people via a referendum could alter the way in which Scotland was governed and its status within or outside of the UK.

15. For A form of direct democracy- it helps to make decisions legitimate and is in line with the principle of government by consent. It secures consensus. The Good Friday Agreement 1998 to end sectarian conflict in Northern Ireland was only ever likely to last if it had widespread support across both religious communities. The 1973 referendum was ineffective in achieving this as the majority of the Nationalist Community abstained and the Troubles continued. They can prevent governments making unpopular decisions- the massive no vote in the North East referendum 2004. As a way of resolving an issue when the government or party is divided on the issue- 1975 EEC referendum and the 2011 referendum on AV. A referendum entrenches constitutional changes- the AV referendum and the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence will be binding. The claim of right established in 1997 (Scotland) and the GFA which established joint sovereignty over Northern Ireland (Irish Republic and Westminster). On some issues the proposals for change are too momentous not to be put to a referendum- the adoption or not of the European Single currency being the prime issue. Against Excessive use of referendums will lead to a loss of respect for elected representatives and institutions Many issues are simply too complex and the tendency for issues to be over simplified by the Yes/No campaigns in their efforts to whip up support- Nationalist parties which want devolution or in the case of Scotland independence exploit populist history e.g. SNP independence broadcast with references to Mel Gibson’s Brave heart to the strings of Gladiator. Referendum campaigns are massively expensive- according to the Daily Telegraph the AV referendum £80m a figure which had to be met by local councils. Also there can be an imbalance in financial support- 1975 EEC campaign had backing of most businesses. People might use a referendum to show dissatisfaction with the government of the day- did this influence the decisive No vote in 2004 in the North East? It would be irrational if the UK were to decide whether or not to adopt the EURO on the basis of a referendum vote largely reflecting the popularity of the government of the day. Low turnouts undermine the legitimacy of the decision- Wales 1997 only 50.1% of the electorate voted on proposal for an assembly and the vote was split 50.3% yes and 49.9% no. In 2011 on whether the Assembly should be granted primary legislative powers- the vote was carried on a turnout of 35%. The tyranny of the majority. Most issues cannot be resolved by a simple response yes or no. Elected representatives are in a position to modify decisions to take into account minorities For and against referendums

16. Why did representative democracy emerge… • Democratic spirit began to spread across Europe and America C17-C19… • States were larger and more complex than those of Ancient Greece and so direct democracy not a viable option. • Political philosophers objected to direct democracy on the following grounds… • -Most people were illiterate or poorly educated. • -The tyranny of the majority especially as it would leave power in the hands of the poor.

17. Representative democracy is where The mass of the people are represented by a minority of office holders • Burkean representation- C18 Whig MP but seen as the founding father of modern conservative philosophy. In his address to his constituents at Bristol explained his role to use his judgement in the best interests of his constituents not to merely follow instructions- he was not a delegate. • Parliamentary representation- Here representatives are expected to strike a balance between their own judgment, stated policies of the party and the interests of their constituents. • Party delegation- the growth of party discipline- MPs are expected to follow the party line. It could be argued that voters elect MPs on basis of party manifesto and not on qualities of a particular candidate. However since 1970, there has been a progressive loosening of such discipline. The present Coalition government experiences regular rebellions- over 50% of the parliamentary Liberal Democrats voting against increases in university tuition fees. The Coalition Government is based on a post election coalition agreement and not on a particular manifesto. The problem for the Liberal Democrats was that they had campaigned in 2010 against university fees in the first place.

18. What are the main features of Parliamentary Democracy in the UK? • Parliament is the source of political authority government action has to be sanctioned by Parliament. • All members of the government are also members of either the House of Commons or the Lords (Parliamentary government) this ensures face to face accountability to Parliament. • All proposals must be submitted to Parliament for approval and only Parliament can sanction the raising and spending of public funds (financial resolution) and ministers must account for their actions to Parliament. • All citizens are represented by an MP whose interests and views should be taken into account- constituents have the right to lobby their MP either in Parliament or via letter or via their constituency surgeries. • The guardian of the electoral mandate by which the government in power was elected into office. Parliament has a duty to ensure that the government of the day does not seek to step outside or beyond its mandate.. However, the formation of a Coalition based on a post election deal undermines this.

19. Elected officials represent a constituency and are expected to represent the interests of the constituency as a whole. Parliament is expected to some extent to act as a representative cross section of society as a whole- when debates and committee hearings take place peers and MPs express what they believe to be the views and interests of various sections of the community. The days when labour represent the working class and the Conservatives the middle class are gone- all mainstream parties claim to represent the whole nation As faith in parties declined membership in pressure groups has increased- they are seen as more effective vehicles for the demands and views of the electorate. Media especially the newspapers represent the general public leaders pay far more attention to the press as it is widely believed that newspapers do have influence. The Houses of Parliament are not socially representative. Whereas women are 51% of the population only 22% of the MPs and 21% of the peers are. Ethnic minorities are 8% of the population but only 4% of the membership of either House is one. Although less than a 1/3 of the population is university educated around 90% of parliamentarians are. Factors which promote and undermine representative democracy in the UK

20. Representative Elected representatives may use superior knowledge and judgement and avoids hasty and emotional decisions by the people. Representatives mediate between the interests of different sections of society whereas direct democracy is the will of the majority and minorities are vulnerable. Issues especially those involving conflicting interests are needing complex solutions whereas direct democracy simplifies questions and solutions. Popular demands are often incoherent and illogical whereas representative democracy can make better sense of these and convert into practical programmes. Direct Purest form of democracy. People are better educated and informed than in the past and therefore able to be involved in crucial decisions. There is a decline in faith in parties and representative institutions. An increasing proportion of key political issues is being resolved by either pressure group activity or via referendums. It avoids decisions being made in the interests of the representatives. Direct and representative Democracy compared

21. Key features of a liberal democracy • Accountable government (to the people) • Free and fair elections • Peaceful orderly transfer of power from one government to the next • Information is freely available to the citizens. • Protection for rights and liberties • Toleration of diverse beliefs, opinions, cultures and lifestyles.

22. Yes Accountability- ministers must account for actions to Parliament. Parliament scrutinises bills and via select committees the work of government departments. Free and fair elections. Independent Electoral Commission to ensure honest elections which are free from corruption. All adults (non prisoners) have the right to vote and stand for office unless disqualified. Legitimacy and the transfer of power- High degree of acceptance of results and little or no violence in the elections. Information- the UK has a free press and free broadcasting. The Freedom of Information Act has extended accountability of government and public bodies. Rights and Liberties- UK has signed up to the ECHR and the Social Chapter of the European Union (Maastricht Treaty). First codification of British rights in the HRA. An independent judiciary which via judicial activism has challenged the state for attempting to deprive rights of individuals. Judges can apply the principle of ultra vires, often in judicial review which overrules an action of a minister or the government on the grounds that they have exceeded their powers and abused civil liberties. Limited Government- Parliament has a good record of restraining the executive- 2005 the House of Commons rejected the government from extending imprisonment without charge of suspected terrorists to 90 days without trail. Tolerance- UK is known abroad as a tolerant nation. As long as they have not challenged the legitimacy of government, the law and security of the state they are accepted. Multiculturalist policies such as legal exemptions for Sikhs and crash helmets, Kosher and halal butchers, recognition of sharia and beth din courts for dealing with religious issues such as Jewish/Muslim divorce etc… Also legalisation of homosexual acts between consenting males 1966, and lowering the age of homosexual sex between men to 16, legal recognition of same sex civil partnerships, the gay marriage bill. Important here is the public support of the Conservative Prime Minister to endorsing gay marriage I do not support gay marriage in spite of being a Conservative I support gay marriage because I am a Conservative No Accountability- Parliament lacks sufficient time to assess government bills, operation of the guillotine via government control of the parliamentary timetable, government majority on parliamentary cttees. Free and fair elections. Concerns over corruption in postal voting. Also reduction in number of constituencies and redrawing of electoral boundaries will favour the Conservatives. Also is FPTP a fair system? The role of safe seats. C80% votes ineffective as a result. The ECHR has deemed the blanket ban on prisoners from voting in the UK is unacceptable and has rejected the UK’s opposition on appeal Rights and Liberties- The HRA is not entrenched. The principle of derogation by which the government with parliamentary approval may suspend parts of the HRA in the interests of national security. The use of anti terror measures by local authorities to spy on citizens on non national security matters- dog poo and on parents claiming to reside in the vicinity of a popular school. Limited Government- There is no written constitution which sets clear limits to government power. Prerogative (crown prerogative ) powers exercised by the Prime Minister are not subject to parliamentary control or approval. Tolerance- Growing terrorist threat, increased incidence of immigration and asylum seeking have caused strains. Note the success of BNP, albeit short-lived, to secure council seats. Note also the rise of intolerant fundamentalist groups opposing pluralist values of a liberal and increasingly secular society. Note also the strains within the Conservative Party over the same sex marriage bill. Note also that in a liberal democracy liberalism absolutises liberalism- only those cultural practices which are compatible with human rights can be tolerated- hence the commitment by the government to outlaw forced marriage. Is the UK a Liberal Democracy?