Chapter 9

1. Chapter 9 Observational Learning

2. Of Octopuses and Crabs • Octopus • Crab • Put crab in jar • Octopus opens jar • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ocWF6d0nelY Uh-oh!

3. Results Time to open jar Trials

4. First (model) Second (observer) Time to open jar Trials Observation • Second octopus watches training of first octopus

5. Observational Learning • Also called “Vicarious Learning” • A change in behaviour due to the experience of observing a model

6. Early Work on Observational Learning • Anecdotal evidence • Thorndike • Puzzle box • Experienced model, naïve learner • Animals don’t learn by observation • Successes and failures

7. Imitative Behaviour • Not necessarily the same as observational learning • Do same thing as a model • May indicate a lack of learning about a situation • E.g., doing a behaviour that leads to an aversive outcome

8. Human Infants & Imitation • At what age can humans imitate/learn vicariously? • Metzolff & Moore (1977) • 12 to 21 day old infants • Facial gestures: tongue protrusion, mouth open, lip protrusion

9. Experiment • Experimenter: 90 sec passive face (baseline) • Infant shown gesture four times • Imitation-test period • Video taped and scored by “blind” judges • Supports imitation

11. Results 50 10 % of mouth open response % of tongue-out response 25 5 baseline tongue-out mouth open baseline tongue-out mouth open Experimenter’s Gesture Experimenter’s Gesture

12. Infant Research • Replication difficult • Tongue protrusion elicited by other means • Infants’ attention: general arousal? • Evolutionary advantage • Observing and copying behaviour of parents, siblings, etc. may bring more attention

13. What can you Learn with Observational Learning? • Classical conditioning: no • Operant conditioning:yes • Observe model’s outcome (appetitive or aversive)

14. Epstein (1984) • Model bird (MB) • Experienced • Observer bird (OB) • Naïve • Experiment • Model trained to use object for food • Ball (B), switch (S), key (K); five phases

15. baseline Five Phases • 1. OB right; B, S, K in left • 2. OB right; B, S, K in right • 3. MB in left, OB in right; B, S, K in left • 4. As above, but B, S, K in right • 5. OB right; B, S, K in right

16. Results • Phase 4: observer imitates model • Phase 5: observer uses objects without model to guide actions • Learning due to observation of a model and expectation of reinforcement (motivation; latent learning) • Not due to observer’s prior experience or direct reinforcement

17. Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz & Wolkin (1974) • Children observed model look at paired pictures, indicating preferences • Model received approval, disapproval, or neutral consequences • Observers’ subsequent preferences were for the pictures that the models received approval for selecting

18. Generalized Imitation • Don’t see the outcome of the model’s behaviour, but the observer imitates anyway • Prior experience with observational learning • We learn that imitating others’ behaviour may provide reinforcement • We generalize from one condition to another

19. Generalized Imitation • Also an issue of discrimination as applied to: • Discriminative stimulus • Who to imitate • Response • When to imitate • Outcome • What to expect

20. Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory • Observational learning as a subset of operant conditioning • Observer’s behaviour changes due to consequences of observer’s behaviour, not the model’s

21. Process • Three steps: • 1. Learner observes behaviour of model • 2. Learner copies response • 3. Learner receives reinforcement --> continue imitating • Model rat knows maze; observer allowed to follow • Group 1: both model & observer reinforced at end; observer will run maze on own • Group 2: only model reinforced at end; observer will not run maze (latent learning)

22. Interesting Issues • When to delay before imitating • Learning and telling a joke • Limited time offer (e.g., trick-or-treating) • Lack of reinforcement • May not actually observe model’s outcome • Model’s outcome may be on PRE • Imitation may not lead to immediately appetitive outcome • Generalized imitation

23. Bandura’s Studies • Bobo the Clown experiments • Children as observers • Watched various models demonstrating behaviours • Consequences of model’s behaviour • Availability of reward/punishment

24. Model Observers

25. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • Attentional processes • Retentional processes • Motor reproductive processes • Incentive and motivational processes

26. Characteristics of the Model • Rewardingness • Authority • Dominance • Similarity • Sincerity

27. Characteristics of the Learner • Uncertainty • Sex • Age

28. Characteristics of the Situation • Task uncertainty • Task difficulty • Presentation of model

29. Comparison • Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory • Behavioural; operant conditioning • Past experiences • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory • Innate processes, learning, and cognition • Future expectations

30. Television Violence • National Television Violence Study (1998) • 8000 hours of programming • 7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years • 60% of programs contained violence • Less than 4% contained anti-violence message • By age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders and over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV

31. Smoking & lung cancer TV violence & aggression Condom use and HIV Secondary smoking & lung cancer Lead exposure and child IQ Calcium intake & bone mass Homework & academic achievement -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 Correlation TV Violence & Aggression • Strong correlation • Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2000)

32. Issues for Studies • Correlational findings • Do not imply causation • Third factor? • Longitudinal studies • Follow subjects over time • Experimental studies • Control and experimental groups • Contrived? • Brief time period

33. Phobias • Development • Vicarious acquisition • Prevalence in humans? • Treatment • Flooding • Systematic desensitization

34. Observational Learning Treatments • Modeling • Used with the very young • Sometimes more rapid • May be better at generalization • Three types of phobia reduction modeling • 1. Graduated modeling • 2. Participant modeling • 3. Symbolic modeling

35. Modeling in Behaviour Therapy • A model can influence an observer • Facilitate known response • Teach new behaviours • Reduce/eliminate undesirable behaviours

36. Mirror Neurons • Scattered throughout premotor cortex, centres for language, empathy, pain • Fire when certain actions are preformed by or observed in someone else • “Mental imitation” of witnessed (or heard) actions

37. Discovery • Giacomo Rizzolatti, Vitorio Gallese, & Leonardo Fogassi • “Raisin incident” • Macaque monkey with electrodes in premotor cortex • Published in 1996

38. Locations in Humans • More mirror neurons in more places than in monkeys • Premotor cortex (movement) • Inferior parietal areas (perception) • Posterior parietal lobe, superior temporal sulcus, & insula (comprehend another’s feelings, understand intention, and use language)

39. Role • Learning through observation • Understanding meaning or intention of action • E.g., become better at golf by watching golf • Not limited to motor responses

40. Gallese, Rizolatti, et al. (2005) • Subjects listened to sentences describing actions • Same mirror neurons fired as would have if subjects had done the action or seen the action performed • Mirror neurons responded to abstract representation (i.e., language)