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The History and Milestones of European Integration

The History and Milestones of European Integration. Dr. Spyros Blavoukos ( sblavo@aueb.gr ) Assistant Professor Department of International and European Economic Studies Athens University of Economics and Business. Structure of the Presentation. Part I: Historical Development

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The History and Milestones of European Integration

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  1. The History and Milestones of European Integration Dr. Spyros Blavoukos (sblavo@aueb.gr) Assistant Professor Department of International and European Economic Studies Athens University of Economics and Business

  2. Structure of the Presentation • Part I: Historical Development • Origins – Economic and Political Rationale of the European Integration Process • From the European Defense Community (EDC – 1950) to the Treaty of Rome (1957) • Part II: Key Milestones – Deepening and Widening of the European Integration Process • Treaties • Policy Processes • Policy Programs • Part III: EU Institutions • Part IV: Cooperation in Foreign and Security Policy – EU in the Globe

  3. PART I: Historical Development

  4. Historical Background: Political Factors behind European integration • Combating nationalism and the ‘German problem’ • New political map of Europe (East-West) • New international power balance

  5. Historical Background: Economic Factors behind European integration • Bretton Woods institutions (1944) • Economic Restructuring of Europe post WWII: • Marshall Plan (1947) • Aid conditionality: economic cooperation and openness • Interdependence (economic & political)

  6. European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC) (1951) • Why coal and steel? Basic components of military industrial production • Schuman Declaration (9 May 1950) →ECSC - Treaty of Paris (1951) • Institutions: High Authority/ Commission; Council of Ministers; Common Assembly; Court of Justice • Initial success but coal & steel declining importance/ other energy sources

  7. An Alternative Path: the European Defense Community (EDC) • In light of Soviet threat and despite the establishment of NATO (1949), quest for greater defense cooperation • Also, to reintegrate German forces in West-European defense • Pleven plan: European Defense Community agreed by the 6 (1952) • Joint military forces and command (less than a decade after the end of WWII!) • EDC rejected by French National Assembly (1954)  EDC collapse (one year later, West Germany joins NATO) • An alternative path straight to the core of national sovereignty

  8. …to the EEC Rome Treaty (1957) • Back to the original Schuman strategy: political union best achieved via economic integration • Messina (1955): further econ. integration (“united Europe”) • Two Treaties of Rome 1957: • European Economic Community (EEC) • Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community) • EEC: clear rules on trade, guiding principles for social and agricultural policy

  9. The EEC Treaty • Removal of tariffs & quotas  free trade area • Common External Tariff for external imports; basis for Common Commercial Policy  customs union (completed in 1968) • Prohibition of distortion of competition • Measures to promote free movement of persons, services and capital (SM) • Institutions: Commission; Council of Ministers; Assembly; Court of Justice

  10. Part II: Key Milestones – Deepening and Widening of the European Integration Process

  11. Deepening of Integration: Treaty Development • Treaty Development • Rome (1957/ 1958) • Single European Act (1986/ 1987) • Maastricht Treaty (1991/ 1993) • Amsterdam Treaty (1997/ 1999) • Nice Treaty (2001/ 2003) • Constitutional Treaty (2004/ never ratified) • Lisbon Treaty(2007/ 2009) • Is there a pattern? Why?

  12. Deepening of Integration: Policy-Making Processes • Dynamic inter-institutional relationships • New ‘actors in town’ (Heads of Government, national & transnational sectoral interests) • Policy process more varied & complex • More emphasis on efficiency (use of QMV -away from unanimity) & democracy (EP ↑↑↑)

  13. Deepening of Integration: Policies (1/2) • Core: Economic and Related Policies • Internal Market/ Single European Market (‘project 1992’) • EU as a ‘regulatory state’ • Emphasis on product standards; liberalization of national economies; prudential regulation; control against subsidies, etc, • Additional to core: Employment, environment, consumer protection; working conditions • Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) (today 19 members) • BUT: limited involvement in social welfare, education, health • Redistribution through: Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Regional policies (ERDF, Structural and Cohesion Funds)

  14. Deepening of Integration: Policies (2/2) • Other policy areas: • foreign & security • defense; • justice & home affairs • In general, very few areas left without significant EU policies

  15. Widening of the Integration Process: Enlargement • 1st enlargement (1973): DEN, IRE, UK • Mediterranean (1981/86): GR, ESP, POR • EFTAn (1995): AU, FIN, SWE • 10+2 (2004): CY, CZ, EST, HU, LAT, LIT, MAL, POL, SLOVK, SLOVN + BU, RO (2007) • CR (2013) • Total: EU-28 • 6 candidate countries: ALB, ICL, MTNEGRO, SERB, FYROM, TUR • No enlargement for the next five years

  16. http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/index_en.htm

  17. 1STEnlargement (1973) • FRA against UK (1961 and 1967 –French vetoes) (de Gaulle in power): could unsettle FR-GR alliance; ties with US; dilute integration • U-shift: FRA for UK (1969)(Pompidou in power): counterweight to GER; support FRA to opposition to supranationalism; economic gains, UK net contributor • Reasons for British urge to join: UK in decline, Commonwealth and special relation with US under crisis, EC outperforming UK, rising EC political status

  18. Mediterranean enlargement (1981/86) • Concerns about the underdevelopment of the Greek economy • Commission negative Opinion • Still, GR (applied 1974 – accession 1981): underpin democracy; consolidate GR’s west european alliance bonds • SP-POR (applied 1977 – accession 1986) • Decoupling of accession negotiations

  19. EFTAn Enlargement (1995) • EFTA: European Free Trade Association in demise • EFTA unsatisfactory (had to accept rules they could not influence) • EFTA was replaced by EEA in 1994 • End of cold war (neutrality status not an impediment ) • Norway voted against

  20. ‘Bing Bang’: Central and Eastern Europe10+2 (2004/7) • Why? EU seen as provider of soft security protection and for economic benefits • EU enlargement criteria (1993, Copenhagen): • democracy, rule of law, human rights, respect for minorities • functioning market economy, capacity to cope with market competition in EU; • candidate ability to adhere to aims of political, econ. & monetary union • “EU capacity to absorb new members, while maintaining momentum of integration”

  21. Impact of Enlargement on EU • Leads to Treaty reforms, increases in QMV since SEA (1986) • EU institutions grew in size • Institutional and administrative problems (e.g. language) • EU policy outcomes more flexible (OMC; differentiation/ enhanced cooperation; opt outs) • Uploading of additional M/S requirements, preferences, problems • EU global importance

  22. Part III: EU Institutions

  23. Institutional Structure: An Overview • Supranational • Commission • European Parliament • European Court of Justice • European Central Bank • Intergovernmental • Council of Ministers • European Council

  24. The Political System of the EU (1/3) Division of Power Political/Strategic Guidance EUROPEAN COUNCIL (Heads of State and Government) • Executive Branch: COMMISSION • Legislative Branch: COUNCIL OF MINISTERS and the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (co-decision or ‘ordinary’ procedure) • Judicial Branch: EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE

  25. The Political System of the EU: Decision-Making (2/3) Decision-Making in the EU Decision-Making in the Council Simple majority Special majority 55% of M/S 65% of EU population Unanimity • About the EP involvement: • Consultation procedure • Assent procedure • Co-decision

  26. The Political System of the EU: How Democratic Is It? (3/3) • An elite-driven process • The ‘Golden Years’ (1960s-70s): ‘Permissive consensus’ • “Democratic deficit”: bring people in • How? • EP empowerment • More use of majoritarian decision-making • National Parliaments engaged

  27. COMMISSION: Main Features (1/3) • The ‘executive’ branch of government • ‘The Commission proposes, the Council and the EP disposes’ • Main expression of supranational forces in the European integration process • ‘College of Commissioners’ (team spirit / collegial, not individualistic) • Collective responsibility (consensus pursued; voting takes place but no records are available)

  28. COMMISSION: Structure (2/3) • One Commissioner per M/S including the President and the High Representative. • Five year term which may be renewed. • Each Commissioner nominated by his/her member state, but must be acceptable to the President. • The College as a whole must be approved by the EP after individual “hearings”. • Each Commissioner has a portfolio. • Commissioners are not national representatives but should promote “the general interest of the Union” (Art. 17, TEU) • President: from Lisbon Treaty onwards, direct link with EP elections

  29. COMMISSION: Functions (3/3) • Proposer and developer of policies and legislation • Executive functions • Guardian of the legal framework • External representative and negotiator • Mediator and conciliator

  30. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Main Features (1/3) • Main intergovernmental body; the ‘legislative branch’ • Legally, only one Council of Ministers; in practice, different formations or configurations • Council used to meet in over 20 formations; nowadays: • General Affairs; Foreign Affairs; Economic and Financial Affairs (ECOFIN); Justice and Home Affairs; Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs; Competitiveness; Transport, Telecommunications, Energy; Agriculture and Fisheries; Environment; Education, Youth and Culture

  31. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Structure (2/3) • Normally, four or five people support the “inner table team”; in very confidential issues, size may be reduced to “Ministers plus two”, “Ministers plus one”, or, exceptionally, “Ministers and Commission” • Role of the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER). • COREPER I (technical policy and legislative matters, M/S delegations headed by the Deputy Permanent Representative) • COREPER II (more senior and more political, m-s delegations headed by the Permanent Representatives).

  32. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Functions (3/3) • Policy and law maker: • Shared responsibilities mainly with COM and EP • Two-fold limitations: Council of Ministers acts on the basis of proposals made by the COM ; EP has very important legislative powers • Executive: • through committees composed of national government officials (‘commitology’). • Most obvious and direct Council executive activity in foreign and defense policy areas • Mediator: • national and ideological interests in the Council, • between the Council and the COM and the Council and the EP

  33. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Main Features (1/3) • Present from the beginning (Assembly of the ECSC) but had only an advisory role; • Gradual rise to co-legislator role (power to block legislative proposals under the co-decision process) • Indirect role: • EU budget • European Council’s proposal of a candidate for COM President must be made taking into account the elections to the EP. • The Commissioners-designate shall be subject as a body to an EP vote of consent • The EP can dismiss the College – but not individual Commissioners – by carrying a motion of censure by a 2/3 majority of the votes.

  34. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Structure and Functioning(2/3) Structure Functioning Multi-site problem: Brussels, Strasbourg, Luxembourg (‘moving circus’ critique) EP Committees Important role of ‘rapporteur’ • Very loosely organized transnational federations grouped around general principles (EPP, PES, ELDR) → political groups in the EP

  35. EP ELECTIONS • 1979 the first direct elections. • different electoral systems, constituency structure, eligibility for election and in the number of citizens MEPs represent. • Low voter turnout

  36. EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE (ECJ) • The Court of Justice of the European Union consists of three courts: • the Court of Justice, • the General Court (formerly called the Court of First Instance) • the European Union Civil Service Tribunal (just deals with internal EU staffing disputes). • All courts located in Luxembourg • Often confusion with the Strasbourg-based European Court of Human Rights (Council of Europe) or the The Hague-based International Court of Justice (UN) • One judge per M/S

  37. ECJ: Impact and influence • Clarification and strengthening of EU law • Extension of EU policy competence (internal market). • Clarification of powers and functioning of the institutions. • Judgments have saved the EU the need to make law in existing areas of competence. • HOWEVER: • Constraints by the existing policy framework • ECJ cannot initiate cases

  38. PART IV: Cooperation in Foreign and Security Policy – EU in the Globe

  39. In Quest for the ‘Single Phone Number’ • Pleven Plan (1950): European Defense Community (EDC) – single European army under a single political authority [failure] • FouchetPlan (1961-2): intergovernmental cooperation in parallel to economic integration (the French view) • European Political Cooperation (1973): • outside Treaty framework • Deliberation, no committing decisions • Emphasis on ‘civilian power Europe

  40. Common Foreign and Security Policy – Maastricht Treaty (1991) • Background (1989-90): • end of Cold War; integration of re-unified Germany in Europe; • Foreign and Security Policy as a corollary of political integration • parallel negotiations on EMU • Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): • one of the three pillars of the TEU • intergovernmental nature: unanimity, no involvement of ECJ and EP • full respect to the political autonomy of FR and UK in the UNSC • Dissolution of ex-Yugoslavia: collapse and paralysis

  41. Amsterdam Treaty (1997) • ‘Constructive Abstention’ • New post: High Representative (Javier Solana) • Integration of ‘Petersberg tasks’ (UN-like peace keeping operations) • Why? Absorption of Western European Union (WEU) and accession of the ‘neutrals’ (AUS, FNL, SWE)

  42. ‘Headline Objective’ (1999/2004) • Cologne and Helsinki Eur. Councils (1999): ‘Headline Objective’ - European Rapid Reaction Force • By 2003, 50,000 to 60,000 personnel, to be deployed within 60 days, sustained for up to one year • St Mallot Summit (1998): Franco-British understanding • Complemented with civilian Headline Goal (police officers, judges, administrators) (Feira, 2000) • Revised (2004) – ‘Headline Goal 2010’: introduces ‘Battle Group concept’ • high readiness forces - 1,500 personnel, to be deployed within 10 days, sustained for up to 30 days (extendible to 120 days with rotation).

  43. EUROPEAN SECURITY STRATEGY (ESS)(2003/8) • Basic security threats and EU international engagement • EU as a global player: • should be ready to share in the responsibility for global security and in building a better world • should develop a shared vision of global challenges and threats • should be more active, more capable, and more coherent • Threats: international terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, regional crises, failed states, organized crime • Mantra of ‘effective multilateralism’ : emphasis on international law, effective international organizations, principles and norms • Collaboration with International Organizations

  44. Lisbon Treaty (2007) • Cooperation still intergovernmental • High Representative: merging of two posts • Commissioner responsible for external affairs and High Representative of CFSP • To bring coherence and increase effectiveness • European External Action Service (EEAS) • Revised list of “Petersberg tasks” • Solidarity clause : support in case of terrorist attacks or humanitarian disasters • Protocol on “Permanent Structured Cooperation”: enables closer cooperation in military and defense issues

  45. Main Actors Involved • Council of Ministers, chaired by HR/VP • Political and Security Committee (PSC): Ambassadors • Political friction with COREPER • EU Military Committee (EUMC): CHODS and Military Representatives – advisory role • Civilian Committee (CivCom): advisory role

  46. How It Works

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