Aim: Punnet Squares

1. Aim: Punnet Squares Do Now: List two characteristics of yourself that people say you got from your mother and two characteristics that you got from your father.

2. What are Punnet Squares? • Punnet Squares is a tool used to predict how a offspring will look based on the Parents’ trait.

3. Since the parents have a set of chromosomes from their own parents, when their sex cells divide in meiosis, these new sperm or egg many contain a combination of chromosomes.

4. Chromosome contain genes. These genes determine the traits that the offspring will have. • Since every cell has a pair of chromosomes, every cell has a pairs of genes. • There are 2 types of gene: • Dominant - • Recessive

5. Dominant genes determines what the offspring will have – in any combination • Recessive genes will only show their characteristic if they are paired with another recessive gene. • Homozygous refers to genes that are exactly the same DD, dd • Heterozygous refers to genes that are different- Dd, dD

6. Phenotype and Genotype • When looking at a person you will see their physical characteristics – This in known as a person’s phenotype. • When you look at a person’s genes, you are looking at the combination of the parents genes. This is a person’s genotype. • A person’s phenotype is not always the same as the person’s genotype.

7. Example 1 • What are the genotypes of the offspring if you mate a homozygous dominant tall girl with a heterozygous boy? • What are the phenotypes of the offspring if you mate a homozygous dominant tall girl with a heterozygous boy?

8. Example 2 • What are the genotypes of the offspring if you mate a heterozygous girl with a heterozygous boy and brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive? • What are the phenotypes of the offspring if you mate a heterozygous girl with a heterozygous boy and brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive?

9. Review • Atoms are the smallest part of matter. • Molecules are substances that are made from a combination of atoms. • There are two types of molecules: • Organic molecules – molecules that have at least one carbon atom and one hydrogen atom in it. • Inorganic molecules – all the other molecules

10. Organic molecules • Organic molecules are broken into four categories: • Carbohydrates – their subunits is glucose –they are used for energy • Lipids – their subunits are fatty acids – they are used to store energy and membrane production • Proteins – their subunit are amino acids – they are used as enzymes, hormones, antibodies and neurotransmitters • Nucleic acids – their subunit are nucleic bases – they are DNA and RNA

11. Important inorganic molecules • Water • Oxygen • Carbon dioxide • Salts

12. Enzymes • Enzymes are special proteins that speed-up chemical reactions. • Theshapeof an enzyme determines their job. • pH and temperature can effect an enzymes shape; therefore affecting the enzymes function. • Enzymes do two types of reactions: • Synthesis – combining smaller molecules into a larger molecule. • Digestion – breaking a large molecule into smaller molecules.

13. pH • pH measures how acidy something is • Something with a pH between 1-6 is said to be acidy • Something with a pH between 8-14 is said to be basic • A pH of 7 is neutral – water is neutral • 0 or 1 is the strongest acid; while 14 is the strongest base • When graphing enzymes, the highest point on a graph is where the enzyme works its best is known as the optimum point. Going past this point means that the enzyme’s rate of reaction is decreasing.

14. Life • In order for something to be considered alive, it must perform the 8 life functions: • Growth – increase in size and number • Transport – to move molecules within itself • Synthesis – to make molecules that it can’t get from the environment • Homeostasis – ability to maintain balance of the body • Nutrition – the ability to obtain food • Respiration – convert food into energy • Excretion – to get rid of cellular waste • Reproduction – to make offspring

15. The Cell • Cells are the smallest unit of life because they can do ALL 8 life functions. • There are two types of cells: plants and animal • Cells are made up of small structures called organelles that work together to keep the cell in homeostasis.

16. Parts of the cell • Nucleus – control center of the cell – contains the cell’s DNA • Cell membrane – regulates what enters and leaves the cell • Cytoplasm – liquid material that circulates molecules around the cell. • Ribosome – makes proteins • Mitochondria – performs respiration – converts glucose into energy (ATP) – looks like a maze • Chloroplast (only in plants)– performs photosynthesis – converts light into glucose – looks like stacks of coins • Cell Wall (only in plants)– give the plant cell support and shape • Vacuole – stores extra food, water and waste

17. Photosynthesis and Respiration • Photosynthesis – performed only in plants • The chloroplast converts water, carbon dioxide and light into oxygen and glucose. • CO2 enters the plant through the stomata (holes in the leaves) • Water enters the plant through the roots • Respiration – performed by plants and animals • The mitochondria converts oxygen and glucose into water, carbon dioxide and ATP.

18. The Cell Membrane • The cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins. • The membrane regulates what molecules enters and leave the cell. • Small molecules can move through the membrane easily while large molecules cannot.

19. Diffusion and Osmosis • Diffusion is the process where small molecules move through a membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. (subunits and oxygen& CO2) • Osmosis is the process where water moves through the membrane trying to dilute large molecules on the other side. (salt)

20. Passive and Active Transport • Passive transport is the process of moving molecules through a membrane without using energy (ATP). Diffusion and osmosis are passive transport. From a high to a low concentration. • Active transport is the process of moving molecules through a membrane with the use of energy (ATP). From a low to a high concentration.

21. Indicators • Iodine test for starch – amber to blue-black • Benedict test for glucose – blue to orangey-red when heated • Burriets test for proteins - blue to pink-purple

22. Levels of Organization • Smallest • Cell • Tissue • Organ • Or • Biggest • Organelle • Cell • Tissue • Organ • Organ system • Organism

23. Circulatory System • Made up of: • Heart • Pumps blood to all parts of the body • Divided into two sides • Oxygenated – blood with oxygen • Deoxygenated – blood without oxygen • Blood vessel • Arteries – large, thick – brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the body • Veins – medium size - brings deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart • Capillaries – tiny – connects arteries to veins – site of diffusion • Blood • Red blood cells – transport oxygen to the body • White blood cells – helps fight pathogens • Platelets – helps forming scabs • Plasma – liquid part of the blood – transports all nutrients and CO2

24. Respiratory System • Made up of: • Nose and mouth • Trachea • Bronchi • Bronchioles • Lungs • Alveoli – Tiny sacs in the lung where oxygen is exchange with CO2 from the blood.

25. Digestive System • Made up of: • Mouth – mechanically & chemically breakdown food • Esophagus • Stomach – make acids and enzymes – lowest pH in the body • Accessory organs – liver, gall bladder and pancreas – secretes additional enzymes to aid in digestion • Small intestines – absorb nutrients from digested food - Villi • Large intestine – absorb water

26. Excretory System • Made up of: • Kidneys – filters blood for cell made waste (water, salts and urea) • Uterer - • Bladder – Stores urine • Urethra- transport urine (& sperm in males) out of the body

27. Muscle and Skeletal Systems • Made up of: • Bones – support, protect and makes blood cells • Muscles – movement and generate heat for the body • Ligaments – connects bone to bone • Tendons – connects bone to muscles • Cartilage – cushion between bones – prevents bones from bumping into each other.

28. Nervous System • Made up of: • brain • Spinal cord • Nerves - neurons • The nervous system causes the body to respond to stimuli • Neurons communication with each other using a protein call a neurotransmitter. • Pain medication block neurotransmitters by fitting on the neurotransmitters.

29. Immune System • The immune system protects the body from invaders. • All things that are not from the body are called pathogens (bacteria, viruses, organs from another person) • The body knows that something is foreign because the pathogen's antigens are different that the body’s antigens. • Antigen’s are proteins found on the membrane that tells the body if something belongs there or not.

30. Immune System (cont) • The body has three ways to prevent the body from being sick: • The skin and mucus keep pathogens from entering the body • White blood cells • Engulfs pathogens • Make antibodies that locate pathogens for the WBC • Antibodies are proteins and are made for only one type of disease. Organ transplants are dangerous because patients need to take special drugs to lower the immunes system. If not, the patient's body will attack the new organ as if it was a pathogen

31. Reproductive System • The reproductive system allows organisms to make more of itself. • Female have: • Ovaries – make eggs • Fallopian tubes – site of fertilization • Uterus – where the baby develops • Birth cannel – where baby exits and sperm enters • Makes have: • Testes – makes sperm • Sperm duct – transports sperm to penis • Urethra – transports sperm and urine through the penis • Penis – where sperm and urine leave the body.

32. Reproductive System • Sperm and eggs are called sex cells or gametes. • When a sperm combines with an egg it is called fertilization. • A fertilized egg is called a zygote. • When the zygote first divides it is called an embryo. (all the cells are the same) • The cells will continue to divide until it turns into a fetus. (the cells become different – differentiation)

33. Reproductive System • The baby makes the placenta, which allows the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen from the mother to the baby. It also allows waste and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the baby to the mother. • Because some drugs are small molecule, they can also diffuse from the mother to the baby – causing birth defects.

34. Mitosis and Meiosis • Humans have 46 chromosome in their body cells and 23 chromosomes in the sex cells. • Mitosis is cellular division were body cells divide making two identical cells. • Meiosis is cellular division were sex cells divide making four different cells. • Meiosis allows for different combinations of chromosomes. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent making identical offspring Sexual reproduction involve two parents making different offspring.