BHS 499-07 Memory and Amnesia

1. BHS 499-07Memory and Amnesia Episodic Long-Term Memory

2. Episodic Memories • Episodic memories are tied to specific events. • Amalgams of different kinds of information. • Serial position curves are also seen with episodic memories: • Primacy and recency effects have different explanations than with STM • First & last events more distinctive, less susceptible to interference

3. Levels of Representation • Episodic info is remembered at three levels of representation: • Surface form – the exact wording of a sentence. • Textbase – an abstract representation of the meaning of a sentence. • Mental model – a mental simulation of the described events.

5. Cueing • Memory cues improve retrieval -- long-term memory is content-addressable, not just available based on time of storage.. • New experiences prompt the retrieval of appropriate memories. • The info in the cues is also in the memory traces. • Types of cues: • Feature cues – components of the memory itself. • Context cues – related to the environment.

6. Types of Contexts • Linguistic – the other bits of language occurring at the time a specific piece of info was encoded. • Paired associate learning • External context – environmental cues • Internal context – physiological state, emotions, thoughts in time.

7. Context Effects • Encoding specificity – recall is best when the context is most similar to what it was during learning. • Studying in many different locations adds to context independence & stronger learning. • State-dependent memory – refers to both internal and external states. • Mood-congruent memory – may include other forms of context effects.

10. Transfer Appropriate Processing • Memory is better when the same cognitive processes are using during learning and in recall. • Deep processing affects explicit recall more whereas shallow processing affects implicit memory processes more. • Study rhymes when the test will be about rhymes.

11. Irrelevant Memories • Interference – occurs when there is competition among memory traces. • Negative transfer – prior knowledge impedes new learning. • The amount of interference depends on the similarity of the information. • Proactive and retroactive interference – learning multiple lists.

12. Associative Interference • The more associations there are to a memory, the greater the interference and the more difficult the recall. • Fan effect -- the more you know the harder it is to learn. • This should prevent more learning but doesn’t • Chunking of related info prevents associative interference because one single trace is involved.

13. Inhibition • Interference is controlled by inhibitory processes. • Part-set cueing – poorer memory can occur when cues are given because the cue disrupts retrieval processes. • A form of blocking of associated items to cue. • Directed forgetting – telling people to forget ones reduces interference. • Just as if they had never seen the to-be-forgotten items

14. More Inhibition • Negative priming – the decreased availability of memories that were recently inhibited. • The opposite of normal priming. • Retrieval-induced inhibition – remembering causes forgetting. • Repeated practice – things associated with what was recently remembered are also inhibited with repeated recall.

15. Repetition and Practice • Repetition effect – the more someone is exposed to info, the more likely it will be remembered. • How info is practiced is very important. • Distributed practice is more effective than massed practice (one long session).

16. Explanations • Deficient processing – more neurological consolidation occurs with distributed sessions compared to massed ones. • Encoding variability – multiple sessions provide more distinct contexts aiding recall via more retrieval pathways. • Dual process – both deficient processing and encoding variability are at work.

17. Overlearning and Permastore • Overlearning occurs with repeated practice – strengthens memory traces with increased resistence to forgetting. • Permastore – whatever remains in your memory after 3 years is permanent and will remain a lifetime. • Some things do not go into permastore because they are isolated and not linked to other knowledge (e.g., math, landmarks).

18. Organization & Distinctiveness • Episodic memory is improved by organization of material to be learned. • Even when not given a structure, people impose one themselves. • Distinctiveness – memory is better for items that are distinct or novel • Von Restorff effect – items that don’t belong • Bizarre imagery – use selectively.

20. Relational vs Item-Specific Processing • Organization emphasizes similarity – relational processing that stresses what items have in common. • Works by creating a retrieval plan. • Bizarreness emphasizes difference – item-specific processing that stresses distinctness. • Works by reducing interference.

21. Material Appropriate Processing • The type of learning technique should supplement or enhance what exists in the type of material to be learned. • For narrative text that is already relational, use an item-specific (bizarreness) approach. • For facts that have little relation, use a relational, organizational approach.