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Lecture 11

Lecture 11. 13. Exchange Rates. Exchange Rates. Nominal Exchange Rate The rate at which two currencies can be traded for each other. Exchange Rates. Nominal Exchange Rates The exchange rate between British and Canadian currencies 0.4889 British pounds = $1 U.S.

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Lecture 11

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  1. Lecture 11 13 Exchange Rates

  2. Exchange Rates • Nominal Exchange Rate • The rate at which two currencies can be traded for each other

  3. Exchange Rates • Nominal Exchange Rates • The exchange rate between British and Canadian currencies • 0.4889 British pounds = $1 U.S. • 1.009 Canadian $s = $1 U.S. • 0.4889 British pounds = 1.009 Canadian $s • 0.4889/1.009 = 0.4845 pounds = 1 Canadian $ • British/Canadian exchange 0.4845 pounds per Canadian dollar

  4. Nominal Exchange Rates for the U.S. Dollar

  5. Fixed Exchange Rates • Economic Naturalist • Should China change the way it manages its exchange rate?

  6. U.S. Dollar to Chinese Yuan 11.4% Decline in value

  7. Exchange Rates • Appreciation • An increase in the value of a currency relative to other currencies • Depreciation • A decrease in the value of a currency relative to other currencies

  8. Exchange Rates • Some Definitions • e = nominal exchange rate • e = the number of units of foreign currency that the domestic currency will buy • If e increases, it is an appreciation of the domestic (base) currency. • If e decreases, it is a depreciation of the domestic (base) currency.

  9. Exchange Rates • Flexible Exchange Rate • Fixed Exchange Rates

  10. The equilibrium exchange rate (e*) or fundamental exchange rate equates the quantity of dollars supplied and demanded Supply of dollars e* Demand for dollars The Supply and Demand for Dollars in the Yen-Dollar Market Yen/dollar exchange rate Quantity of dollars traded

  11. The Determination of the Exchange Rate in the Short Run • Changes in the Supply of Dollars • Factors that increase the supply of dollars • An increase in the preference for Japanese goods • An increase in U.S. real GDP • An increase in the real interest rate on Japanese assets

  12. Supply of dollars increases from S to S’ • The value of the dollar in terms of yen falls • e* falls to e*’ S S’ E e* F e*’ D An Increase in the Supply of Dollars Lowers the Value of the Dollar • Increase in demand for Japanese video games Yen/dollar exchange rate Quantity of dollars traded

  13. The Determination of the Exchange Rate in the Short Run • Changes in the Demand for Dollars • Factors that increase the demand for dollars • Increased preference for U.S. goods • Increase in real GDP abroad • An increase in the real interest rate on U.S. assets • Thus a decrease in rates, decreases demand for dollars

  14. Tighter monetary policy raises the domestic real interest rate • Foreign demand for U.S. assets increase • The demand for dollars rises S' S F e*' • The increased demand for U.S. assets by American Savers decreases the supply of dollars • Exchange rate appreciates from e* to e*’ E e* D' D A Tightening of Monetary Policy Strengthens the Dollar Yen/dollar exchange rate Quantity of dollars traded

  15. S(sales to foreigners) Excess supplyof pounds Excess demandfor pounds e D(purchases from foreigners) Foreign Exchange Market Equilibrium (example) • The dollar price of the English pound is measured on the vertical axis. The horizontal axis indicates the flow of pounds in exchange for dollars. Dollar price of foreign exchange(for pounds) • The demand and supply of pounds are in equilibrium at the exchange rate of $1.50 = 1 English pound. • At this price, quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. $1.80 • A higher price of pounds (like $1.80 = 1 pound), would lead to an excess supply of pounds ... $1.50 $1.20 causing the dollar price of the pound to fall (depreciate). • A lower price of pounds (like $1.20 = 1 pound), would lead to an excess demand for pounds … Quantity of foreign exchange (pounds) Q causing the dollar price of the pound to rise (appreciate).

  16. b D2 Foreign Exchange Market Equilibrium Dollar price of foreign exchange(for pounds) • Other things constant, if incomes increase in the United States, U.S. imports of foreign goods and services will grow. S(sales to foreigners) • The increase in imports will increase the demand for pounds (in the foreign exchange market) $1.80 causing the dollar price of the pound to rise from $1.50 to $1.80. $1.50 a D1 Quantity of foreign exchange (pounds) Q1 Q2

  17. S2 b D2 Inflation with Flexible Exchange Rates Dollar price of foreign exchange(for pounds) • If prices were stable in England while the price level in the U.S. increased by 50 percent … S1 the U.S. demand for British goods (and pounds) would increase … $2.25 as U.S. exports to Britain would be relatively more expensive they would decline and thereby cause the supply of pounds to fall. $1.50 a • These forces would cause the dollar to depreciaterelative to the pound. D1 Quantity of foreign exchange (pounds) Q1

  18. Fixed Exchange Rates • How to Fix an Exchange Rate • The government will peg its currency to a major currency or to a “basket” of currencies. • The government may have to devalue or revalue its currency.

  19. Fixed Exchange Rates • Devaluation • A reduction in the official value of a currency (in a fixed-exchange-rate system) • Revaluation • An increase in the official value of a currency (in a fixed-exchange-rate system)

  20. Fixed Exchange Rates • Overvalued Exchange Rate • An exchange rate that has an officially fixed value greater than its fundamental value • Undervalued Exchange Rate • An exchange rate that has an officially fixed value less than its fundamental value

  21. The peso’s official value is greater than the fundamental value; the peso is overvalued • To maintain the value, the government must purchase a quantity of pesos (A-B) Supply of pesos A B 0.125 dollar/ peso Official value Market equilibrium value 0.10 dollar/ peso Demand for pesos An Overvalued Exchange Rate Dollar/peso exchange rate Quantity of pesos traded

  22. Fixed Exchange Rates • How to Fix an Exchange Rate • Responses to an overvalued currency • Devalue the currency • Impose trade barriers • Purchase the currency • To purchase its own currency, a country must hold international reserves. International Reserves • Foreign currency assets held by a government for the purpose of purchasing the domestic currency in the foreign exchange market.

  23. Fixed Exchange Rates • Speculative Attack • A massive selling of domestic currency assets by financial investors

  24. Peso overvalued at 0.125 • Central bank buys pesos • Investors launch a speculative attack -- sell peso dominated assets S S’ A B C 0.125 dollar/ peso Official value 0.10 dollar/ peso • Supply of pesos increases • Central bank must purchase more pesos D A Speculative Attack on the Peso Dollar/peso exchange rate Quantity of pesos traded

  25. Fixed Exchange Rates • Balance-of-Payments Deficit • The net decline in a country's stock of international reserves over a year

  26. Fixed Exchange Rates • Balance-of-Payment Surplus • The net increase in a country's stock of international reserves over a year

  27. Fixed Exchange Rates • Example • Latinia’s balance-of-payments deficit • Demand = 25,000 - 50,000e • Supply = 17,600 - 24,000e • Official value of the peso = 0.125 dollars

  28. Fixed Exchange Rates • Example • Latinia’s balance-of-payments deficit • Fundamental value • 25,000 - 50,000e = 17,600 + 24,000e • Solving for e: • 7,400 = 74,000e • e = 0.10

  29. Fixed Exchange Rates • Example • As the official rate -- 0.125 • D = 25,000 - 50,000(0.125) = 18,750 • S = 17,600 - 24,000 (0.125) = 20,600 • Excess supply = 1,850 pesos • Balance of payments deficit = 1,850 pesos • 1,850 x 0.125 = $231.25

  30. Pesos overvalued at 0.125 • Tightening monetary policy increases D to D’ and the supply will fall S to S'. • Official value = fundamental value S' S F 0.125 dollar/ peso Official value E 0.10 dollar/ peso D' D A Tightening of Monetary Policy Eliminates an Overvaluation Dollar/peso exchange rate Quantity of pesos traded

  31. Fixed Exchange Rates • Observation • If monetary policy is used to set the fundamental value of the exchange rate equal to the official value, it is no longer available for stabilizing the domestic economy.

  32. Fixed Exchange Rates • Observation • The conflict monetary policymakers face, between stabilizing the exchange rate and stabilizing the domestic economy, is most severe when the exchange rate is under a speculative attack.

  33. Should Exchange Rates Be Fixed or Flexible? • Monetary Policy • Flexible exchange rates can strengthen the impact of monetary policy. • Fixed exchange rates prevent the use of monetary policy to stabilize the economy.

  34. Should Exchange Rates Be Fixed or Flexible? • Trade and Economic Integration • Fixed exchange rate proponents argue that fixed rates promote international trade. • The risk of a speculative attack may make the country less attractive to investors and trade.

  35. Fixed Rate, Unified Currency Regime • Some examples of fixed rate,unified currencysystems: • the U.S., Panama, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Hong Kong all of which use currencies that are unified with the U.S. dollar • the 12 countries of the European Monetary Union, all of which use the euro, which is managed by the European Central Bank • Countries such as El Salvador & Hong Kong, that link their currency to the dollar at a fixed rate, are no longer in a position to conduct monetary policy. They merely accept the monetary policy of the Federal Reserve. • The same can be said for the 12 countries of the European Monetary Union that accept the monetary policy of the European Central Bank.

  36. Pegged Exchange Rate Regimes • Pegged exchange rate system:a system where the country commits to using monetary and fiscal policy to maintain the exchange-rate value of the domestic currency at a fixed rate or within a narrow band relative to another currency (or bundle of currencies). • Unlike the case of a currency board, however, countries with a pegged exchange rate continue to conduct monetary policy.

  37. When Pegged Regimes Lead to Problems • A nation can either: • follow an independent monetary policy, allowing its exchange rate to fluctuate, or, • tie its monetary policy to the maintenance of the fixed exchange rate. • It cannot, however: • maintain currency convertibility at a fixed exchange rate while following a monetary policy more expansionary than that of the country to which its currency is tied.

  38. When Pegged Regimes Lead to Problems • Attempts to peg rates and follow a monetary policy that is too expansionary have led to several recent financial crises—a situation where falling foreign reserves eventually force the country to forego the pegged rate. • The experiences of Mexico in 1989-1994 and of Brazil, Thailand, South Korea, Indonesia, and Malaysia in 1997-1998 illustrate this point very clearly.

  39. Balance of Payments Revisited

  40. Example: Imports Example: Exports Balance of Payments • Balance of payments: accounts that summarize the transactions of a country’s citizens, businesses, and governments with foreigners • Any transaction that creates a demand for foreign currency (and a supply of the domestic currency) in the foreign exchange market is recorded as a debit item. • Transactions that create a supply of foreign currency (and demand for the domestic currency) on the foreign exchange market are recorded as a credit item.

  41. Balance of Payments • Under a pure flexible rate system, the foreign exchange market will bring the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied into balance, and as a result, it will also bring the total debits into balance with the total credits.

  42. Balance of Payments • Current account transactions:all payments (and gifts) related to the purchase or sale of goods and services and income flows during the current period • Four categories of current account transactions: • Merchandise trade(import and export of goods) • Service trade(import and export of services) • Income from investments • Unilateral transfers(gifts to and from foreigners)

  43. Balance of Payments • Capital account transactions:transactions that involve changes in the ownership of real and financial assets • The capital account includes both • direct investments by foreigners in the U.S. and by Americans abroad, and, • loans to and from foreigners. • Under a pure flexible-rate system, official reserve transactions are zero; therefore: • a current-account deficit implies a capital-account surplus. • a current-account surplus implies a capital-account deficit.

  44. Continued on next page … U.S. Balance of Payments, 2003* Balance Debits Credits deficit (-) / surplus (+) Current account: + 713.1 1. U.S. merchandise exports 2. U.S. merchandise imports - 1260.7 3. Balance of merchandise trade (1 + 2) - 547.6 + 307.4 4. U.S. service exports 5. U.S. service imports - 256.3 + 51.1 6. Balance on service trade (4 + 5) 7. Balance on goods and services (3 + 6) - 496.5 8. Income receipts of Americans from abroad + 294.4 9. Income receipts of foreigners in the U.S. - 261.1 33.3 10. Net income receipts (8 + 9) - 67.4 11. Net unilateral transfers 12. Balance on current account (7 + 10 + 11) - 530.6 Source:http://www.economagic.com/. * Figures are in Billions of Dollars

  45. U.S. Balance of Payments, 2003* Balance Debits Credits deficit (-) / surplus (+) Current account: 12. Balance on current account (7 + 10 + 11) - 530.6 Capital account: + 580.6 13. Foreign investment in the U.S. (capital inflow) -297.1 14. U.S. investment abroad (capital outflow) 15. Balance on capital account (13 + 14) + 283.5 Official Reserve Transactions: 16. U.S. official reserve assets -1.5 17. Foreign official assets in the U.S. + 248.6 + 247.1 18. Balance, Official Reserve Account (16 + 17) 0.0 17. Total (12 + 15 + 18) Source:http://www.economagic.com/. * Figures are in Billions of Dollars

  46. Capital Flows and the Current Account

  47. Current Account as % of GDPsurplus (+) or deficit (-) Net Foreign Investment as % of GDPsurplus (+) or deficit (-) Leading Trading Partners of the U.S. + 2 0 - 2 - 4 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 + 4 + 2 0 - 2 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 • Under a flexible exchange rate system the inflow and outflow of capital will exert a major impact on the current account and trade balances. • The figures for the U.S. (above) illustrate this linkage.

  48. Are Trade Deficits Bad? • An inflow of capital implies a trade (current account) deficit; an outflow of capital implies a trade (current account) surplus. • While the term “deficit” generally has negative connotations, this is not necessarily true for a trade deficit. • If a nation’s investment environment is attractive, it is likely to result in a net inflow of capital, which will tend to cause a trade deficit. • Similarly, rapid economic growth will tend to stimulate imports, which is likely to result in a trade deficit.

  49. Trade Deficits: Points to Ponder • Although they often cause trade (and current account) deficits, both rapid growth and a healthy investment environment are signs of a strong economy, not a weak one. • A trade deficit (or surplus) is an aggregate that reflects the voluntary choices of individuals and businesses. In contrast with a budget deficit, no legal entity is responsible for the trade deficit. • The trade deficits of the U.S. during the 1980s and 90s were largely the result of rapid growth and a favorable investment climate.

  50. Should Trade Between Countries Balance? • Political leaders often imply that U.S. exports to a country, China or Japan for example, should be approximately equal to our imports from that country. • This is a fallacious view. • Under a flexible exchange rate system, overall purchases from foreigners will balance with overall sales to foreigners, but there is no reason why bilateral trade between any two countries will balance.

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