Foundations Review

Foundations Review

The Paleolithic (“Old Stone”) Age, c. 40,000-c. 10,000 B.C.E. Hunter-gatherers Trade (e.g. seashells) Technology firemaking bone and stone weapons and jewelry Art and religion: Cave paintings and female figurines Prehistoric Human Societies

Building Blocks of Civilization • What is a Civilization? • Economic System • Political Organization • Moral Code (Religion) • Written Language and Intellectual Tradition • Division of labor

The Neolithic (“New Stone”) Revolution, c. 10,000-c. 4000 B.C.E. Transition from a nomadic existence as hunter-gatherers to more settled lifestyle Invention of agriculture Domestication of animals

Neolithic Revolution • What was it? • A period that saw the development of varied, specialized tools and accompanied the introduction of agriculture. • Initial results • It opened the potential for agriculture and the resultant differentiations with hunting and gathering. • Impact • People settled down and cities developed which led to complex systems developing and the change from societies to civilizations

Issues of Civilization vs. Cultures • What advantages does an agriculturally based society have over a hunter/gatherer based society? • The greatest advantage is reliable food supply, and hence, the capacity to support larger populations. Agriculture produces surpluses, and those and agriculture's sedentary nature, open the door to specialization and a more elaborate culture, etc. • Why is the development of writing important in the history of the river valley civilizations? • Writing is essential for record keeping, bureaucracy, commerce, and accumulating knowledge; it also makes possible more varied cultural forms. Writing also led to new social divisions based on selective literacy. • Compared to non-civilized societies, what are the major drawbacks of civilization? • Often have inequality in social structure and gender as well as disease and war.

Increasingly gender-based division of labor Specialized crafts (metallurgy and weaving) Emergence of social hierarchy: patriarchal organization of state and society would become the norm in the West Invention of irrigation (c. 6500 B.C.E.) facilitated establishment of settled agricultural communities in the Fertile Crescent Social Changes

Results of Agricultural Revolution • Many Diversified Crops developed • Development of Communities and Villages • Not Based on family ties • Lead to formation of Cities • Early Religions form around Harvest and Planting Seasons • Specialization of Labor • Improved Tools • Development of Social Classes

River Valley Civilizations • Mesopotamia (between two rivers) • Tigris and Euphrates River Valley • Flooding unpredictable in both time and force • Fertile Crescent • Written Language: Cuneiform • Epic of Gilgamesh • Hammurabi’s Code • Egypt • Nile River valley: Upper and Lower Egypt • Inundation: regular flooding Schedule • Monarchy: Pharaoh and Small class of Priests • Duality: Complex Religion, Mummification • Book of the Dead • Many great Inventions and Advances

Mesopotamia, c. 4000-1000 B.C.E.(Bronze Age) • The Tigris and Euphrates • Flood control and irrigation • Trade, migration, movement of armies • The West’s first large-scale civilization • Cities containing large public buildings • Crop diversification and diverse crafts • Organized central governments • Writing

Religious Concepts • Religion and Mythology • Polytheistic religious belief reflected harshness of war and struggle with unpredictable environment • War-like gods who possessed total control over human lives • Sacrifices, rituals, temples (ziggurats) • Power of priests and priestesses

Myth Creations • Epic of Gilgamesh • Search for immortality by semihistorical King Gilgamesh of Uruk after death of his friend Enkidu • Realizes that only gods enjoy immortality; humans must content themselves with fame derived from performing mighty deeds • Story of a devastating flood in later version

First City • Sumer • Earliest cities in southern Mesopotamia • Agriculture and trade (as far away as India) • Sumerians • Developed the wheel • Created first writing system (cuneiform) • Devised a mathematical system and astronomy

First Empire • The Akkadian Empire, c. 2350-2200 B.C.E. • World’s first empire • Sargon the Great conquered Sumerian cities and territories westward to the Mediterranean, in part to ensure metal supplies • Destroyed by invading Gutians during reign of Sargon’s grandson

The Kingdom of Assyria, c. 1900 B.C.E. • Became dominant city-state due to control of trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia • Encouragement of private enterprise rather than state monopoly

First Written Law • The Kingdom of Babylon and King Hammurabi’s Code (18th century B.C.E.) • Earliest known written laws • King’s responsibility to maintain order and justice • Basis of international commercial law: regulated contracts, interest, mortgages, etc. • Criminal penalties harsh and reflective of social hierarchy

Egypt, c. 3050-1000 B.C.E. • Egyptian Civilization • Geography as Destiny • The Nile • Protected by deserts on the east and west • Predictable annual flooding • Stability and Unity • Developed in relative isolation into a prosperous and stable kingdom

Old Kingdom, c. 2687-2190 B.C.E. • Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Menes, c. 3100-3000 B.C.E. • Controlling the river • Astronomical charts • Writing system: hieroglyphs

Old Kingdom • Religion and Government • About 2,000 gods in the Egyptian pantheon • All powerful kings were believed to be human incarnations of gods • Only the king could express the ultimate truth and justice, or ma’at

The Afterlife • Belief in an immortal soul and reward for those who lived a just life • Mummification • Provisions for the afterlife in burial chambers of those who could afford it, including the Book of the Dead • The Pyramids • Royal burial tombs reflected the kings’ power in political and religious life

Middle Kingdom, 2061-1665 B.C.E. • Diminished flooding of the Nile and famines around 2350 B.C. E. led to civic disruption and the loss of royal authority • Regional governors withdrew support of the king, spawning political breakdown and the First Intermediate Period (c. 2190-2061 B.C.E.)

New Kingdom, c. 1569-1081 B.C.E. • Second Intermediate Period (c. 1664-1570 B.C.E.) • Famines • Invasion by the Hyksos • Thebans from Upper Egypt reunited Egypt as New Kingdom • Warrior pharaohs further extended Egypt’s borders and trade contacts

New Kingdom aberrations • Queen Hatshepsut (r. 1502-1482 B.C.E): Only woman to rule as pharaoh (and female king) • Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV, r. 1372-1355 B.C.E.) and Nefertiti • Introduced cult of one central god, Aten, and moved capital to Amarna • Wife tried to restrain his zeal, but his devotion to Aten undermined his effectiveness as ruler • Tutankhamen (r. 1355-1346 B.C.E.): restored worship of traditional gods

Comparison of Egypt and Meso. • Common features include writing, surplus, cities, and established governments; • Cuneiform • Hieroglyphics • Pyramids only different types (steppe dev. Into ziggurats) • Differences • cultural tone • cultural features like ideas of death • artistic forms • literary emphases • government organization and stability • Egypt placed more emphasis on monarchy and political stability and held larger territories for longer periods while Fertile Crescent had city-states that constantly vied for control of the area and form empires (Sumerians, Assyrians, Akkadians, Chaldeons, Babylonians, etc… • mobilization of labor • What evidence are used to prove similarities or differences?

Other River Valley Civilizations • Indus Valley • Indus and Ganges Rivers • Reason for decline not known • Highly unified and organized government • Artistic • Linear B • China • Yellow River valley • Shang China: first dynasty • Monarchy • Bronze work, silk making, pottery, jade • Zhou Dynasty: Many Advancements • Mandate of heaven

Ancient Chinese Dynasties I. Early (Neolithic, then River Valley, Huang He) A. Yangshau - 6000 - 5000 Bce B. Longshan - 5000 - 4000 Bce II. Bronze Age (1500-600 BC) A. Shang Dynasty (1500-1122 bce) B. Chou (Zhou) (1122-256 bce) 1. Early Chou (Zhou)1100- 600 III. Classical Age (600 BC - 200 ad) A. Late Chou (Zhou) (600-221 bce) 1. Confucius B. Chin (First Emperor) (221-206 bce) (Shi hwang di) 1. First Called China C. Han (paper) (202 BC- 220 ad) 1. 90 % of Chinese consider themselves Han still today 2. Pax Sinica a. Wu Di (140 BC - 87 bce) IV. Age of Division (200-600 ad) A. Three Kingdoms B. Northern and Southern (Wui, Sui) V. Medieval Age (600-1200 ad) A. Tang (618-907 ad) B. Sung (960-1279 ad) VI. Yuan Dynasty or Mongol Age (1200-1350 ad)

China’s Political structure tied to social order and culture by Confucianism • Confucianism emphasized order, hierarchy, and deference, including specific injunctions to obey the emperor. • Bureaucracy aimed to alleviate political instability, difficulties of centrally controlling outlying provinces, and related competition among landed aristocrats for power and influence. • Daoism also supports order by “one way or the way” although it didn’t support the emperor

China’s Empires/Dynasties • Qin dynasty outlawed Confucianism • Legalism encouraged actions based on law and furthered the totalitarian state • Actually began to develop in the Zhou dynasty but was used by Shih Huang Di to unite the region under his Qin dynasty • Different than Confucianism which was based on ethics and right behavior and “rites” or ceremonies which promote the social and political order • Adopted as state religion under Wu Di of Han Dynasty • Song Dynasty developed Neo-confucianism

Impact • It appears that the impact of the Indus is less than the Hwang He river-valley civilizations, because China was much less disrupted, and thus evidenced more continuities. • Evidence used to show that Hwang He river valley had greater impact on the development of China than did the Indus River Valley is within the ruins of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa

Southwestern Asia Civilizations • Persians • Created one of the largest empires on world history :from Turkey to Lybia • Cyrus the Great was first king, Darius and Xercis • Advanced Postal System, Roads, Single Currency, and Decentralized Government • Zoroastrianism: Primary Religion • Dualistic / Monotheistic • Fell to Alexander the Great • Phoenicians • Syria and Lebanon • Advanced Export Economy • Skilled Traders • Established Carthage • First Alphabet

Southwestern Asia Civilizations • Lydians • Coined money • Hebrews • Ethical monotheism • Monotheism represented a significant departure from polytheism in its concept of ethics and ideas of justice and in the extent to which the world was viewed as orderly. • Diaspora • Assyrians • Introduction of iron weapons • Babylonians – • Significant law code • Code of Hammurabi

MesoAmerica • Did not have the large animals • Diseases that they carried were not present but made peoples of Mesoamerica vulnerable to disease when they connected to the Europeans in the second millennium • Archaic period includes beginning of agricultural experimentation • Olmec’s are the first pre-classical civilization (ca. 1150 BCE) • site is San Lorenzo

Environmental determinism • Relationship between culture of a civilization and its environment measures the success and stability • How does the culture react to the environment or environmental change? • Technology? • What about the movement of peoples into and out of the area? • Crossroads (Meso) vs. Isolation (Egypt)

Classical Civilizations and Great Empires - Han - Rome (Greco – Roman) - Greek – Persian (Hellenistic) - Gupta

Empires • Initial development • Resources available • Adaptability • Demographic concerns • How can you feed your people • Usually some period where conflict between agricultural productivity and availability of luxuries • Have to placate the farmers and peasants • Labor concerns • Period of great productivity and cultural advancement (Pax Romana, Pax Sinica, Pax Mongolica) • Less outside challenges from one source • Lots of minor challenges so have to increase army which means relying on those whom you conquered • Technological advancements to maintain empire (aquaducts for Romans) • Centralization of power • Decline • Corruption • Morality concerns • Religious issues • Economic crisis • Succession and dynastic issues • Expansion is required but cannot hold onto borders • Outside invaders

Ancient Greece • Aegean, Minoan, Mycenaean Civilizations • Trading Societies (enviornmental determinism) • Conquest (Trojan war) • Joined into single Culture called Hellenes or Greeks • Archaic period

Minoan Crete, c. 2200-1400 B.C.E. • Palace society: centered on independent palace complexes that controlled the religious, economic, and political life of their communities • Mediterranean polyculture • Integrated the cultivation of grapes, olives, and grain • Other cultural features • Highly specialized crafts • Redistributive economy regulated from palace complexes • Sophisticated artwork depicting scenes of leisure and sports

Mycenaean Greece, c. 1800-1000 B.C.E. • Earliest mainland Greek culture characterized by independent hilltop fortifications that competed with each other for resources and territory • Redistributive economy similar to that on Crete • Warfare a central preoccupation, perhaps even eclipsing religion

The Sea Peoples and Calamities of c. 1200-1000 B.C.E Exact reasons remain unknown, but region’s political equilibrium was upset and most centers were dramatically wiped out. In the resulting Dark Ages, most traces of Civilization disappeared for several centuries.

The Greeks • Greek City States: Polis • Athens, Sparta (Thebes, Corenthia, Attica, others) • Athens: educated, great thinkers • metics • Sparta: Warlike, Soldiers, Military Strength • Helots • xenophobic • Beginnings of Democracy • Golden Age • Began in Athens • Pericles • Not full enfranchisement • Most representative Government in Ancient World

Ancient Greece • Peloponnesian War • Conflict between Athens and Sparta • Left Greece Weak • Open to conquest from Persians and then Macedonian “Alexander the Great” • Alexander the Great • Great Conqueror, took over Asia, Persian Empire, territory to borderlands of India • Spread Greek Culture throughout Eurasia • Hellenic Culture • Science was important, Geometry, physics, mathematics and astronomy • Poetry (Homer), Drama(Sophocles, Aeschyles, Euripedes) Philosophy, (Socrates, Plato)

Forms of Government • Oligarchy • Rule by a group of elite families or rule by a few • Monarchy • Leadership by one person passed through family • constitutional Monarchy limits to power by constitution or parliament (Pharaoh) • Republic • Citizens all participate in government • is government that is voted upon (elected) • Democracy • All citizens play the same role in government • Theocracy • Rule by the church or priests (No separation of Church and State) • Tyrant • takes control

Persian Empire • Achaemenid • Cyrus (Establishes the Persian Empire) • Darius • Xerxes (Persian wars against Greek City States 499 BCE) • Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid • Buffer states for Rome and Kushan • Incorporated into the Islamic Empires beginning in 651 CE • Foundations of Safavids • Shah Abbas

Ancient Rome • Archaic Period • Etruscans, Sabines, Latium • Rome built 753 BCE • Roman Republic (509) last of Tarqiun kings • Tensions between Plebeians (lower class) and Patrician (upper class) called struggle of the orders • Beginning of Roman expansion • Punic Wars • Three Campaigns against Carthage • Rome was Victorious • Began expanding to the East (Greece, Balkans) • Collapse of Roman Republic • Too Much expansion • Caused Social Problems, Civil wars • Solidification of Leadership under single hand • Roman empire • Julius Caesar, Octavian (Caesar Agustus)

Various Eras of Rome • Archaic – 753 BCE city of Rome is built • Roman Republic • 509 • Imperial Era • Fall of Rome 476 CE • City of Rome already sacked in 410 by Aleric, a Visogoth • Pax Romana (27 BCE – 180 CE) • Colluseum built • Aquaducts • Virgils “Aenid” • Livy

Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill • Basilica Julia • Temple of Saturn • Rostra • Temple of Vespasian • Tabularium • Temple of Concord • Arch of Septimius Severus Urbanization

Silk Road • Series of routes that connected east with west around the beginning of both Pax Romana and Pax Sinica • gold and other precious metals, ivory, precious stones, and glass, which was not manufactured in China until the fifth century • furs, ceramics, jade, bronze objects, lacquer and iron • Most significant exchange was Buddhism

Han Dynasty • Strongest and longest dynasty • Expansionist Empire • Postal system • Roads • Defensive fortifications • Weak Leadership caused collapse • Corruption and leadership issues • Had to protect the expanding borders some that encouraged trade along the silk road • Silk road brought “bandits” that threatened the outer borders of the Han dynasty

India • Aryans • Nomadic Group invaded India • Earliest Europeans • Conquered the Dravidians (Dark Skinned Indians) • Established Warrior Aristocracy • Established Sanskrit • Vedic Era and Early Hindu faith • Caste System • Priests (Brahmins) • Warriors and Political Rulers (Kshatruyas) • Commoners • Servants and Peasants • The “Untouchables” • Born into Caste; Cannot be changed

Cultural Development • India was more open to contact and invasion and less internally coherent than the Middle Kingdom (interior mountains etc), which helps explain the differences in openness to influence, and political stability. • Ethnocentrism • Xenophobia later

Foundations Review