Chapter 5 pgs. 100-108

1. Chapter 5pgs. 100-108 Biodiversity, Species Interaction, and Population Control

2. Chapter Overview Questions • What determines the number of species in a community? • How can we classify species according to their roles in a community? • How do species interact with one another? • How do communities respond to changes in environmental conditions? • Does high species biodiversity increase the stability and sustainability of a community?

3. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? • They were over-hunted to the brink of extinction by the early 1900’s and are now making a comeback.

4. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? • Sea otters are an important keystone species for sea urchins and other kelp-eating organisms.

5. COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY • Biological communities differ in their structure and physical appearance. Figure 7-2

6. Desert scrub Tall-grass prairie Short-grass prairie Tropical rain forest Thorn scrub Thorn forest Coniferous forest Deciduous forest Fig. 7-2, p. 144

7. Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing? • Frogs serve as indicator species because different parts of their life cycles can be easily disturbed. Figure 7-3

8. Adult frog(3 years) Young frog Sperm Tadpole develops into frog Sexual Reproduction Tadpole Eggs Fertilized egg development Egg hatches Organ formation Fig. 7-3, p. 147

9. Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing? • Habitat loss and fragmentation. • Prolonged drought. • Pollution. • Increases in ultraviolet radiation. • Parasites. • Viral and Fungal diseases. • Overhunting. • Natural immigration or deliberate introduction of nonnative predators and competitors.

10. SPECIES INTERACTIONS: COMPETITION AND PREDATION • Species can interact through competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. • Some species evolve adaptations that allow them to reduce or avoid competition for resources with other species (resource partitioning).

11. Resource Partitioning • Each species minimizes competition with the others for food by spending at least half its feeding time in a distinct portion of the spruce tree and by consuming somewhat different insect species. Figure 7-7

12. Niche Specialization • Niches become separated to avoid competition for resources. Figure 7-6

13. Number of individuals Species 2 Species 1 Region of niche overlap Resource use Number of individuals Species 1 Species 2 Resource use Fig. 7-6, p. 150

14. SPECIES INTERACTIONS: COMPETITION AND PREDATION • Species called predators feed on other species called prey. • Organisms use their senses their senses to locate objects and prey and to attract pollinators and mates. • Some predators are fast enough to catch their prey, some hide and lie in wait, and some inject chemicals to paralyze their prey.

15. PREDATION • Some prey escape their predators or have outer protection, some are camouflaged, and some use chemicals to repel predators. Figure 7-8

16. (a) Span worm Fig. 7-8a, p. 153

17. (b) Wandering leaf insect Fig. 7-8b, p. 153

18. (c) Bombardier beetle Fig. 7-8c, p. 153

19. (d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly Fig. 7-8d, p. 153

20. (e) Poison dart frog Fig. 7-8e, p. 153

21. (f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Fig. 7-8f, p. 153

22. (g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal. Fig. 7-8g, p. 153

23. (h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake. Fig. 7-8h, p. 153

24. SPECIES INTERACTIONS: PARASITISM, MUTUALISM, AND COMMENSALIM • Parasitism occurs when one species feeds on part of another organism. • In mutualism, two species interact in a way that benefits both. • Commensalism is an interaction that benefits one species but has little, if any, effect on the other species.

25. Parasites: Sponging Off of Others • Although parasites can harm their hosts, they can promote community biodiversity. • Some parasites live in host (micororganisms, tapeworms). • Some parasites live outside host (fleas, ticks, mistletoe plants, sea lampreys). • Some have little contact with host (dump-nesting birds like cowbirds, some duck species)

26. Mutualism: Win-Win Relationship • Two species can interact in ways that benefit both of them. Figure 7-9

27. (a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Fig. 7-9a, p. 154

28. (b) Clownfish and sea anemone Fig. 7-9b, p. 154

29. (c) Mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil Fig. 7-9c, p. 154

30. (d) Lack of mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil Fig. 7-9d, p. 154

31. Commensalism: Using without Harming • Some species interact in a way that helps one species but has little or no effect on the other. Figure 7-10

32. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: COMMUNITIES IN TRANSITION • New environmental conditions allow one group of species in a community to replace other groups. • Ecological succession: the gradual change in species composition of a given area • Primary succession: the gradual establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas where there is no soil or sediment. • Secondary succession: series of communities develop in places containing soil or sediment.

33. Primary Succession: Starting from Scratch • Primary succession begins with an essentially lifeless are where there is no soil in a terrestrial ecosystem Figure 7-11

34. Lichens and mosses Exposed rocks Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce forest community Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Heath mat Small herbs and shrubs Time Fig. 7-11, p. 156

35. Secondary Succession: Starting Over with Some Help • Secondary succession begins in an area where the natural community has been disturbed. Figure 7-12

36. Mature oak-hickory forest Young pine forest with developing understory of oak and hickory trees Shrubs and pine seedlings Perennial weeds and grasses Annual weeds Time Fig. 7-12, p. 157

37. Can We Predict the Path of Succession, and is Nature in Balance? • The course of succession cannot be precisely predicted. • Previously thought that a stable climax community will always be achieved. • Succession involves species competing for enough light, nutrients and space which will influence it’s trajectory.

38. ECOLOGICAL STABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY • Living systems maintain some degree of stability through constant change in response to environmental conditions through: • Inertia (persistence): the ability of a living system to resist being disturbed or altered. • Constancy: the ability of a living system to keep its numbers within the limits imposed by available resources. • Resilience: the ability of a living system to bounce back and repair damage after (a not too drastic) disturbance.

39. ECOLOGICAL STABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY • Having many different species appears to increase the sustainability of many communities. • Human activities are disrupting ecosystem services that support and sustain all life and all economies.