Indigenous Paternal Imprisonment and the Next Generation: Closing the Gap or Perpetuating Inequality?

1. Closing the gap or perpetuating inequality? Indigenous paternal imprisonment and the next generation Susan Dennison Funding Sources: Queensland Department of Premier and Cabinet (Indigenous Criminal Justice Research Agenda) ARC Future Fellowship (FT0991557) School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

2. Aims • To examine the potential effects of Indigenous paternal imprisonment by exploring: • How father-child relationships change as a consequence of imprisonment • Barriers to parenting in prison • Father’s perceived wellbeing of their children • Opportunities to support parenting by Indigenous fathers in prison School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

3. Parental incarceration and inequality • African-American children disproportionality experience the imprisonment of their father • Net effect is usually harmful • It creates a cascade of difficulties for families • Evidence of large-scale and enduring effects of parental incarceration on the next generation of children School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

4. Parental incarceration and inequality • Racial gaps in behavioural problems up 46% • Racial differences in aggressive behaviour up 24% • Racial gaps in homelessness up 64% • Increase in infant mortality (Wakefield & Wildeman, 2014) • Parental imprisonment perpetuates racial inequality in USA School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

5. What does this mean for the Australian context? • Our rates of paternal incarceration for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children virtually mirror those of African-American children • 1 in 4 African-American children (Wakefield & Wildeman, 2014) • 1 in 5 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children (Dennison et al, 2013; Quilty, 2003) • Our high imprisonment rates of Indigenous men and women create the ideal conditions for ongoing disparity (Weatherburn, 2014) School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

6. What does this mean for Closing the Gap? • Closing the Gap: The Prime Minister’s Report 2015 • Some improvements in education and health • Most targets are not on track to be met • Close gap in life expectancy within a generation • Halve the gap in reading, writing, and numeracy (improving school attendance is critical) • Halve the gap in employment outcomes • Little consideration for the role of over-representation of Indigenous adults in prison and no consideration for the effect of parental imprisonment on children and communities School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

7. What are the macro-level concerns? • There is a clear need for macro-level policy changes to reduce Indigenous imprisonment rates • Weatherburn (2014) argues for key changes around parenting and child development, education, employment, reducing substance abuse, bail reforms and reducing recidivism. • These approaches, and those initiatives seeking to close the gap, are operating in conjunction with the ongoing damaging effects of parental incarceration School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

8. What are the micro- and proximal- level concerns? • How do we bring Indigenous paternal imprisonment into this conversation? • What are the mechanisms producing this negative effect on children? • How does imprisonment of Indigenous men effect father-child relationships? School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

9. Indigenous fathers, children and imprisonment • Opportunities to maintain contact in prison and be involved in parenting can impact a sense of self-efficacy, identity as a parent, experience of parental generativity, and long term social generativity • Missed opportunities has consequences for children • The experience of being cared for during childhood is critical to the development of fathering (Cassidy & Shaver, 1999) School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

10. Research Questions • How do Indigenous men in prison identify with, and involve themselves in, parenting? • What is the degree and quality of contact that Indigenous men have with their children? • What barriers do Indigenous fathers experience in maintaining relationships and parenting while in prison? • How can parenting by Indigenous fathers be supported in prison? School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

11. The Fathers • 41 fathers, aged 21 – 50 years, Median = 34 years • 83% identified themselves as Aboriginal, 5% Torres Strait Islander, 12% both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander • 92% had served a prior sentence, Median = 4 • 7% married, 51% living with partner, 34% not in relationship, 7% in casual relationship • 1 – 9 children per participant (M = 3.15, SD = 2.09) • 91% were biological fathers of the children School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

12. The Fathers • 42% of participants grew up without a father present • 26% reported being raised with harsh or abusive parenting styles School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

13. The Children • 129 children (53% male) • Ages one month – 17 years, Median = 9 years • 32% were experiencing their first episode of paternal imprisonment • Experience of prior paternal imprisonment ranged from 0 – 10 episodes, Median = 1 prior episode • Cumulative time with a father in prison ranged from 1 month – 172 months, Median = 28 months • 45% of children were living with their father prior to his imprisonment School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

14. RQ1 – Engaging in parenting • Prior to imprisonment: • 80% reported playing and interacting with children prior to imprisonment • 65% involved in disciplining children • 23% reported being involved in the children’s day-to-day care • 60% engaged with their children on a cultural level prior to imprisonment • During imprisonment: • 41% reported that they participate in parenting with at least one child while imprisoned • 62% kept up to date with children’s lives School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

15. RQ 2: Degree and quality of contact • Only 22% of men received visits from their children, 66% phone contact, 12% videoconferencing, 42% had some letter contact • 46% had no contact with at least one of their children • Quality of relationship: • 17% remained negative • 32% remained positive • 5% changed to positive • 46% changed to negative “children need to be given love and affection, to deny them that is inhumane… lose the intimate relationship with child in prison” School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

16. RQ 2: Degree and quality of contact • 29% suggested there should be more children’s resources to allow fathers to interact with children “I use a toilet roll to play catch or footy with him…he just wants to be amused” • More frequent or longer visits (12%), family days with BBQ’s (12%), visits in the open air (22%), eating food together (15%), having family photos taken (2%), more privacy (12%) • 64% of fathers reported problems maintaining a relationship with at least one of their children “lost everything… missing out on my sons and they are missing out on me” School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

17. RQ 3: Barriers to maintaining relationships and parenting • 41% cited cost and/or distance as the primary reason that families did not visit “If I’m lucky I get to talk to them on the phone every now and then…only seven minutes…can’t really have much of a conversation” • 41% reported they did not want visits from their children “can’t stand the thought of bringing them in here, and that you wouldn’t want them to see how we live in here”. He said his son “would say ‘wow’” but that his daughter would be frightened. He said his sons would “want to be here” and that they would think it was cool “…is deadly” but that it is not once you are here. “I won’t ask them how they feel about me in here…don’t want to burden them. Just want them to go to school with a healthy mind, not with a ton of bricks on their head”. School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

18. Impact on children • 56% of men believed their imprisonment had a negative impact on their children’s lives (a further 15% were unsure) • Problems included experiencing shame, being bullied, behavioural problems, substance use, emotional difficulties, academic problems, and growing up without a father figure “prison has made them strangers and not freely spoken the way children should speak…it is like the children are in prison themselves” “everyone has gone haywire since I been inside…” School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

19. RQ 4: Support for Indigenous fathers? • Only two participants had attended a parenting program • 51% of men said they would find a prison-based parenting program useful, including: • Teaching fathers how to emotionally connect and communicate with children, teaching them about drug and alcohol abuse and mental and physical abuse, how to abstain from criminal activity, how to deal with children being bullied, how to budget and financially maintain contact, how to be a responsible parent, how to facilitate their children’s education and encourage work ethics, how to instill cultural values, how to raise children of different age groups, how to provide for children’s basic needs • 39% said a post-release program would be useful, focused on parenting and relationships School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

20. Where to from here? • Need policies that support parenting in prison – place children at the centre of policies • Assist men to develop their role and identities as fathers • Programs that support children and caregivers during the imprisonment period and post-release • Mitigate the effect of paternal imprisonment for other strategies to take full effect School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

21. Further information • A version of this paper is published in: Dennison, S., Smallbone, H., Stewart, A., Freiberg, K. & Teague, R. (2014). “My life is separated”: An examination of the challenges and barriers to parenting for Indigenous fathers in prison. British Journal of Criminology, 54, 1089-1108. • For more information please contact: • Susan.Dennison@griffith.edu.au School of Criminology and Criminal Justice