Unit 2: The Life Span

1. Unit 2: The Life Span Ch 3: Infancy and Childhood Ch 4: Adolescence Ch 5: Adulthood and Old Age

2. Developmental psych The study of changes that occur as an individual matures. Includes physical, social, emotional, moral, + intellectual development. There are 3 main issues in developmental psych: Continuity vs. stages of development Stability vs. change Nature vs. nurture (heredity vs. learned behavior) Ch 3 - Infancy and Childhood

3. Newborns DO NOT TRY THIS!!! Development begins in the womb. Fetuses have heartbeats 3-4 weeks after conception. They also suck their thumbs + hiccup. At birth, they can see, hear, smell, + respond to the environment. Capable of inherited, automatic, coordinated movements called reflexes which include: Grasping reflex – respond to a touch on the palm of their hand + tightly grasp any object. Rooting reflex – if alert + touched around the mouth, they will move their head + mouth toward the object. These reflexes gradually disappear. How do we measure capabilities of newborns? By observing their reactions + behaviors – they can suck, turn their heads, look at things, cry, smile, + show surprise or fright. These things show stimulation.

4. Physical development The development of an infant into a child who can walk + talk is a result of maturation + learning. Maturation is internally programmed growth of a child. For ex, most children can do the following: Lift head – 3 months Smile – 4 months Crawl – 8-10 months Walk – 12-13 months Unless a child is persistently underfed, severely restricted in movements, or deprived of human contact or things to look at, these developments will happen approximately according to the above schedule. It does no good for parents to try to rush the process; a child must be physiologically ready. If an infant is too far behind this schedule, it helps doctors to spot potential problems.

5. Language development We have learned a lot about language development from animals. Chimps are able to learn sign language + use specialized computers w/ symbols. Some claim that there is a critical learning period for language. Young children can often learn sign language more easily + quickly than verbal language. There are several steps to learning language: Make signs by hand or mouth. Learn the meaning of the signs or words. Learn the grammar. By the time a child is 2, they have a vocabulary of 500-1,500 words. From 1½ - 5 yrs old, children add 5-10 words per day to their vocabulary. At 2 yrs old, a child’s grammar is still unlike an adult. They use telegraphic speech in which they leave out words or use the wrong verb tense, but still get the message across. Read p.69 “The Case of Genie” End Section 1

6. Cognitive development Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget intensely studied the intelligence of small children. Discovered that children develop logic + think differently at different ages. Concluded that children’s knowledge grows quantitatively (amount) + qualitatively (depth or meaning). Stressed children’s active role in gaining knowledge. Considered by many to be the greatest child psychologist of the 20th century.

7. To understand the world around us, we all construct mental schemas (mental representations of the world – or a way of seeing + organizing things). When exposed to something new, a child (or adult) will try to fit it into one of his/her schemas. If an object or experience fits into a pre-existing schema, it goes through the process of assimilation. If an object or experience doesn’t fit into a pre-existing schema, theschema must adjust to the new knowledge in the process of accommodation. Assimilation + accommodation work together to produce intellectual growth.

8. Infants only know what is right in front of them. Any object hidden from their sight ceases to exist for them. Around 7 months old, babies begin to realize objects still exist even when they can’t see them. By 18-24 months, children realize that people + objects are independent of his/her actions. This is known as object permanence. At this time, the child has acquired representational thought – the ability to picture things in his/her mind. Young children are egocentric – they can’t understand another person’s perspective. B/w 5-7 yrs old, most children begin to understand conservation – the principle that a given quantity doesn’t change when its appearance has changed.

11. Emotional development We have learned a lot about emotional development from animals. Some newborn animals have a sudden, virtually permanent learning process to become attached to their mothers known as imprinting. If they aren’t exposed to their mother at this time, they will imprint something or someone else + become attached to it. Important for survival purposes. Occurs during a critical period (a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned). In Harry Harlow’s experiment, baby monkeys would often attach themselves to a cloth surrogate monkey w/o food instead of a wood + wire monkey w/ food, showing that imprinting is also important for contact comfort. Read p.270-71 “Fertile Minds”

12. Infants begin to form attachments to mothers around 6 months when they can distinguish one person from another + are beginning to develop object permanence. Attachment w/ mother is especially strong from 6 months – 3 yrs old. Disruption to the process can be disturbing to a child + lead to separation anxiety. During an experiment to measure attachment moms were told leave children + come back w/ + w/o a stranger in the room. Revealed 4 patterns of attachment: 1. Secure attachment – child welcomes back mom + is free of anger 2. Avoidant attachment – child ignores mom 3. Resistant attachment – child not upset when mom leaves, but angry + rejects her when she returns 4. Disorganized attachment – child behaves inconsistently End Section 2

13. Parenting styles There are 4 types: Authoritarian Families: Parents are the bosses. Rules are non-negotiable + kids should never ? parents. Authoritative or Democratic Families: Parents explain the purpose of rules. Kids may participate in the decision making process w/ discussions + negotiations, but parents have final say. Permissive or Laissez-faire Families: Parents try to guide kids but give in when pushed. Kids have the final say. Uninvolved Parents: Parents are distant + unconcerned w/ kids. Studies show kids of authoritative families are more confident of their values + goals than other kids b/c they’re not treated as incompetent nor given too much responsibility too soon. They’re also more able to identify w/ their parents + these parents present a model of responsible, cooperative independence for the kid to imitate.

14. Child abuse The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or mistreatment of children under the age of 18. Reasons it occurs: Abusers were often victims of abuse as kids. Many abusive parents have little patience or unrealistic expectations. Stressed parents are more likely to resort to abuse. Low birth-weight infants, children who are hyperactive, or mentally/physically disabled are more likely to be victims of abuse (make greater demands on parents). Social-cultural stresses like unemployment, + lack of contact w/ family + friends are associated w/ abuse. Abuse can lead to loss of trust + feelings of guilt in victims. This can further lead to antisocial behavior, depression, loss of self-esteem, etc…

15. Social development Socialization is the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture an individual is born into + will live in. A child must learn what is considered acceptable + unacceptable behavior. Some rules are clear, some are flexible. Sometimes there are double standards. Difficult process, rules can change based on: Situation Age Gender Other Each society has ideas about what is meaningful, valuable, worth striving for, + beautiful. Additionally, each classifies people according to their family, sex, age, skills, personality, + other criteria.

16. Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development He believed that all kids are born w/ powerful sexual + aggressive urges. By learning to control them, kids learn right + wrong.

17. During the phallic stage, children become aware of gender differences. Additionally, Freud believed that at this time children compete for the affection of the opposite sex parent + resent the same sex parent. Freud believed this occurrence to be especially powerful for boys – known as the Oedipus Complex (for girls it’s known as the Electra Complex). Eventually children go through the process of identification, in which he/she adopts the values + principles of the same-sex parent. During the latency stage, children redirect their sexual impulses into learning tasks in a process known as sublimation.

18. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Learning Theories of Development Erikson recognized sexual + aggressive urges, but believed that the need for social approval was equally important. Believed we face crises as we mature + how others respond to our efforts shapes our development. Both Freud + Erikson believed learning social rules is different from intellectual or physical skills. Many psychologists disagree. They believe children learn the ways of their social world b/c they’re rewarded for conforming + b/c they copy others in hopes of future rewards. Implies that the child is a passive learner.

19. The Cognitive-Developmental Approach Believe the child’s social development is a result of the child’s acting on the environment + trying to make sense out of his/her experiences. Children’s games are a way for children to make sense of their world. Much time is focused on the rules of play. Learn how to structure group activities. Miniature society. Role-playing allows them to experience other points of view.

20. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Given the hypothetical situation of a man needing an drug he couldn’t afford to save his wife’s life, children showed 6 stages of moral reasoning: P. 85-86 End Section 3

21. What is adolescence? Some societies don’t acknowledge adolescence. People move directly from childhood to adulthood. We consider it to be a time of preparation for adult responsibilities w/ many initiation rites (ceremonies or rituals in which an individual is admitted to a new status or accepted into a new position). Ex: Certain b-days (16,18,21) Getting driver’s license Bar or bat mitzvahs Graduations Marriage Great physical, mental + emotional changes occur. Ch 4 – Adolescence

22. Theories of adolescence There’s been controversy over the nature of adolescence since it was 1st suggested as a separate stage of life in 1904. G. Stanley Hall compared it to being a fully grown animal in a cage – an animal that sees freedom but doesn’t know when it will occur or how to handle it. Stage of great stress. Some see it as a stage of continuous growth. Anthropologist Margaret Mead said adolescent stress is a by-product of industrialized societies + in some cultures, adolescence is a highly enjoyable time. Virtually all agree that there is some stress.

23. Psychologist Robert Havighurst listed developmental tasks adolescents must master which include: Acquiring a masculine/feminine gender role. Developing appropriate relations w/ age-mates of both genders. Becoming emotionally independent of parents + other adults. Deciding on + preparing for a vocation. Understanding + achieving socially responsible behavior. Preparing for marriage + family. Acquiring values that are harmonious + appropriate. Read p.90-91 Time Reports Articles

24. Physical development Sexual maturation, or puberty (the point when reproduction is first possible), begins when hormones trigger a series of internal + external changes including a growth spurt. Girls Start at 8-10 yrs old on average. Fat tissue develops, making them appear chubby. Develop female curves. Boys Start at 9-16 yrs old on average. Fat tissue develops, making them appear chubby, but later disappears to be replaced by muscle tissue. Develop a larger heart + lungs. Voice deepens.

25. This period of growth can be awkward for boys + girls b/c of asynchrony (uneven growth or maturation of body parts). Growth will even out eventually. Males + females both have a strong correlation b/w having a negative body image + feelings of depression. Both genders are particularly sensitive about any traits they possess that they consider to be sex-inappropriate. Adolescents who develop too soon or too late are more likely to be self-conscious. Except for early developing boys - they tend to be more confident.

26. Sexual development Adolescence is the time when people develop their attitudes about sex + expectations about their gender roles. Cultural attitudes on what + when children are told about sex vary widely. The teen birthrate has steadily since 1991. Statistics show that kids of teenage mothers are more likely to have kids as teenagers, do poorly in school, + serve time in jail. End Section 1

27. Cognitive development Thinking patterns characteristic of adults emerge. Abstract thinking becomes more developed around 11-12 yrs old. Leads to better problem-solving abilities. Adolescents deal w/ overpowering emotional feelings through rationalization (a process where a person seeks to explain an unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve his/her self-esteem). Tend to become very idealistic b/c they can imagine the hypothetical (the way things could be). When they compare that to the way things are, they can grow rebellious. Tend to become impatient w/ previous generations’ perceived failures.

28. Dr. David Elkind described problems adolescents develop as a result of immaturity + abstract thought processes: Finding fault w/ authority figures (b/c the adults fall short of the ideal). Argumentativeness. Indecisiveness (b/c they are aware of more choices). Apparent hypocrisy (b/c they have problems living up to their own ideals). Self-consciousness (b/c they assume everyone is thinking about the same thing they are –themselves!). Feelings of invulnerability (b/c they begin to feel that they + their experiences are unique).

29. Teenagers + work By high school graduation over 80% of students have had some kind of job. Most take a low-skilled job for extra $. Research indicates that such work can be harmful. Why? Less time to study for school. Gain a false impression about the workplace b/c their jobs tend to be low paying, boring, + unchallenging. Gain false ideas about $. B/c they’re usually working for luxury items, they tend to experience a false sense of affluence . They may not realize that when they have to take on a full-time job that spending $ will be LESS available.

30. Moral development Many people never go beyond Stage 4 (obey laws + cultural norms) in Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. Stages 5 (are laws just?) + 6 (ethical principles are universal + more important than written laws) require abstract thinking. But although most adolescents acquire this ability, only about 10% display higher moral reasoning. Moral development doesn’t change much in high school, but does during college when people are exposed to different cultures + ideas.

31. Identity development The establishment of identity is the key to adolescent development. Most adolescents go through an identity crisis (a time of inner conflict during which they worry intensely about who they are). What causes this? Physiological + cognitive developments. Awakening sex drives. Awareness of the future as a reality. Need to feel unique but still fit in. Identity forms when they can resolve issues such as occupation, beliefs, morals, etc… Not all psychologists believe adolescents experience an identity crisis, or that if they do it is due to external or societal factors. End Section 2

32. Social development In the 1970s, the typical American family had a wage-earning father who worked outside the home + stay-at-home mother. Now about ½ of marriages end in divorce + over ½ of all adult women are in the workforce. The principle developmental task of adolescents is becoming independent of their families. Teenagers use their peers to define themselves. Early in adolescence, boys + girls are usually divided, but later they mix in groups.

33. What determines whether an adolescent will be accepted by a peer group? Class (middle + lower classes usually don’t mix) Good looks + personality (often determine popularity) Athletics Other Belonging to a clique (a group w/in a group) is very important to most adolescents + serves several functions: Fulfills the need for closeness. Gives each other a way of establishing an identity by helping each other: Achieve confidence Develop a sense of independence from their families Clarify values Experiment w/ new roles

34. The fear of being disliked can lead to conformity (acting in accordance w/ some specified authority). Peers tend to set adolescent values on fashion, music, + school issues. However, parents tend to set adolescent values on marriage, religion, + educational plans. Things like drug use + attitudes about sex can be influenced by peers +/or parents. Adolescents tend to choose friends w/ values similar to their parents.

35. Depression during adolescence Although studies show that the great majority of adolescents adjust fairly quickly to temporary psychological difficulties, the rates of mental illness + suicide have been over the past several decades (the teenage suicide rate has TRIPLED in the last 50 yrs + that rate may be underestimated). Some believe that depression is much more widespread in teenagers than most adults suspect. Unlike adults who appear sad, teenagers often appear angry when depressed + may engage in risky behavior. They may withdrawal from friends + family as well.

36. Eating disorders Most prevalent in teenagers – especially girls. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a fear of gaining weight that results in prolonged self-starvation + dramatic weight loss. Have a distorted body image – believe they’re fat even when they're dangerously thin. Some psychologists believe the disorder is a way for anorexics to feel in control of something (their body). Bulimia nervosa is characterized by binge eating followed by purging (by vomiting, using laxatives, or strict dieting + fasting). Both anorexia + bulimia require counseling to help recover + deal w/ the deeper psychological issues behind them. Former anorexics + bulimics constantly have to be careful of a relapse.

38. End Section 3

39. Gender roles Gender identity is a one’s physical + biological make-up. It is your awareness of being male or female. B/w 2-3 yrs old, most kids label themselves as “boy” or “girl”. By 5 yrs old, most kids have learned the thoughts, expectations, + behaviors that go w/ their gender role. Gender roles are the sets of behaviors that society considers appropriate for each sex. Vary from one society to another. Can change over time w/in a society. Sometimes gender roles become so rigid that they become gender stereotypes – an oversimplified or distorted generalization about the characteristics of men + women. Androgynous – combining or blending traditionally male + female characteristics.

40. Gender Stereotype

42. Gender differences Studies have found that there are personality differences b/w men + women. Men are more confident (according to 1 study) especially in academic areas or in tasks stereotyped as masculine (ex. math + science). Females are more verbally aggressive + men are more physically aggressive. MEN TALK MORE THAN WOMEN!! They also interrupt more, but women talk more when they have power in a relationship. Women are more likely to use disclaimers in speech (ex. “I may be wrong” or “I’m not sure”). Women are more likely to show submission + warmth + men dominance + status. Women are more sensitive to nonverbal cues. Very few cognitive differences.

43. Origins of gender differences How gender differences develop is part of the nature vs. nurture debate. Biological Theory: Emphasizes the role of anatomy, hormones, + brain organization. Believe behaviors evolved from early humans. Psychoanalytical Theory (Freud): Occurs when kids go through the identification process (ages 3-5) when they identify w/ the same sex parent. Social Learning Theory: Kids learn gender roles by observing + imitating adults. Adults respond + reward certain behaviors in boys + others in girls. Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Kids acquire gender roles by interacting w/ their environment + thinking about those experiences. Eventually they develop a gender schema (a mental representation of how men + women should think + behave). End Section 4

44. Physical changes 2 theories of the aging process: Body cells become less able to repair themselves. We have a biological clock which limits the # of times cells can divide + multiply. Young adults reach their physical peak b/w 18-30 yrs old. Period when we’re the strongest, healthiest, + have quickest reflexes. Physical decline is slow + gradual. What is lost physically may be replaced by experience. Ch 5 – Adulthood and Old Age

45. Appearance changes: Hair starts to gray + maybe thin. Skin becomes somewhat dry + inelastic – leading to wrinkles + loose skin. Become a little shorter. Senses become less sensitive + reflexes slow down. Many health problems can be prevented or delayed by taking good care of yourself as a child + young adult (diet, exercise, avoiding risky behavior, no excessive stress, etc…). The 3 most common causes of death in late adulthood are heart disease, cancer, + cirrhosis of the liver. Women go through menopause during middle age. They are no longer able to have kids + their bodies’ production of sex hormones . No male equivalent. ½ of women interviewed said they felt more confident + calmer after menopause.

46. Marriage + divorce Sexual activity About 90% of adults in the US will get married. About ½ of marriages end in divorce. Success or failure of a marriage basically stems from 2 things: How often they share intimate + happy moments. How couples handle conflicts. Happy couples argue, but they: - LISTEN to each other. - Focus on SOLVING THE PROBLEM. - Show RESPECT. Sexual activity doesn’t automatically w/ age. Those who are inactive give 3 reasons for not having sex: Boredom w/ partner. Poor physical condition. Accept the stereotype that sex drive .

47. Cognitive changes Adults in their mid 20’s are better at solving problems that require speed + coordination. People continue to acquire information + to expand their vocabulary as they grow older. The ability to comprehend new material + to think flexibly improves w/ years + experience. Most reach their creative peak in their 40’s (or even as late as their 60’s) if they had a higher education, are in a stimulating environment, + work in an intellectually demanding career.

48. Social + personality development A person’s basic character, his/her style of adapting to situations, is relatively stable over his/her life. But personality is flexible + capable of change as an individual confronts new challenges. Despite people’s belief that they have changed dramatically over the years, researchers have found that confident people tend to remain confident, aggressive people tend to remain aggressive, etc… unless something upsetting has happened (ex. job loss).

49. Levinson’s Theory of Male Development *Ages are approximations. 22-28: Novice into the adult world. Must try to resolve the conflict b/w the need to explore options + establish a stable life structure. 28-30: Transition period w/ “Age 30 crisis”. Tentative commitments made in 1st life structure are reexamined + many ?s about life goals are reopened, often in a painful way. Believe unsatisfying parts of life must be dealt w/ now. 31-40: Settling down. Has made firm decisions about his life, now concentrates on “making it” in the adult world + during the last ½ of this stage, strives to attain seniority + position in his world.

50. 40-45: Midlife transition. Begins again to ask ?s, but now about the past as well as the future (Ex. What have I done? What do I still want to do?). Successful transition often leads to becoming a mentor to a young man which results in generativity (the desire in middle age to pass wisdom on to future generations). Unsuccessful transition may result in stagnation (a discontinuation of development + a desire to recapture the past). Late 40s onward: True adulthood can be achieved. Men who are satisfied w/ their life reach a period of stability + men who aren’t become frustrated + unhappy.