Writing for PhD and MPhil

1. Writing for PhD and MPhil 08 Writing the Literature Review II

2. Session Focus • Review: aims of the literature review • Organisational principles for the introduction and literature review • Identification of common text patterns • Models for ordering citations – tenses and lexical links • Language focus – prepositions • Practice task –ordering citations in the practice topic on childhood obesity

3. Review: Aims of the Literature Review Should the introduction/ literature review: • follow a chronological order overall? • be organised around and directly related to the hypothesis/hypotheses or research question(s)? • give the reader the background information needed to understand your research? • demonstrate that you are familiar with the literature relevant to your study? • establish a connection between your study and previous research? • show that your study will extend and develop knowledge in your field? • critically assess each work cited?

4. Review of the Aims of the Literature Review Should the introduction/ literature review: • follow a chronological order overall? • be organised around and directly related to the hypothesis/hypotheses or research question(s)? • give the reader the background information needed to understand your research? • demonstrate that you are familiar with the literature relevant to your study? • establish a connection between your study and previous research? • show that your study will extend and develop knowledge in your field? • critically assess eachwork cited?

5. Activity 1.1: Organising the Literature Review • Which typical moves or stages can be found in a literature review and introduction? • Are these stages fixed? Why/ why not? • What, in your opinion, is the most important point regarding the structure of the introduction and literature review?

6. 1. Which typical moves or stages can be found in a literature review and introduction? • A general introduction to the topic • A focus on the current state of the research on this topic • A narrower focus on what is lacking in the current research • The proposed aim of the study being undertaken • The reason why the proposed study is important enough to be done • An outline of the structure of the thesis – possibly repeated as step 10 • A more detailed focus on the research literature, presenting and explaining the findings of other studies, including theoretical/ methodological approaches • A more detailed explanation of what is lacking in the research • A more detailed explanation of the aims, objectives and importance of the research • Are these stages fixed? Why/ why not? • These stages are flexible, but usually follow a general to specific order, built around the research aims

7. 3. What, in your opinion, is the most important point regarding the structure of the introduction and literature review? • The logical order • Grouping citations, not listing them • Revealing the critical themes • Showing how the previous research connects to your own • Showing how your work contributes new knowledge • Others?

8. Activity 1.2 1. There is compelling evidence that … has a strong positive impact on …. A few studies have examined …. This study evaluates …. (c) FOCUS (general comments on field of study  increasingly detailed information) 2. Tse (1999) investigated …. Rodrigo (2000) described …. Okamura (2001) found ….. (e) LIST 3. Generally speaking, it appears that …. (Butler, 1995; Silberstein and Kim, 1997; Smith and Al-Arabi, 2002). However, this is not true in the case of … (Nicolaou, 2001). Results may depend on …. (b) MAIN IDEA – RESERVATIONS

9. Activity 1.2 4. It was for a long time assumed that …. However, recent research has shown …. (a) CLAIM - COUNTERCLAIM 5. International students often face linguistic, social and academic challenges in their new environment. Language problems …. Adjusting to a new way of life …. Academic work ….. (d) PREVIEW – DETAIL

10. Activity 1.3 Experiments on Reinforced Concrete Beams • Chronological order / list • Could be used to trace historical development • Fails to fully draw out the trends in the sources Plant Adaptations to Drought • Preview → greater detail • Aids comprehension and retention of information • Draws out how four factors relate to the main point: how the plant avoids dehydration: • extensive and deep rooting • leaf rolling • production of wax • leaf area adjustment

11. Activity 2.1: Models for Ordering Citations Citations ordered from distant to close

12. (D) A review of the literature indicates that food habit studies have been conducted with students from a variety of different age groups. (C) Studies of the food habits of young school children have shown that the diets of grade school children are often deficient in ascorbic acid, calcium and iron (Lantz et al., 1958; Patterson, 1966). (E) Young (1965) examined the nutrition habits of a group of young school children and found that their mothers lacked information about the importance of milk and foods rich in ascorbic acid. F) Studies done with adolescent children report similar findings (Ohlson and Hart, 1970; van de Mark and Underwood, 1972). (B) Litmanet al. (1975) reported that green and yellow vegetables and liver (all nutritionally desirable foods) were not liked by teenagers in Minnesota public schools. (G) A number of studies have been conducted using both male and female college students as subjects. (A) Young and Storvick (1970) surveyed the food habits of 595 college freshmen in Oregon and found that the men generally had better diets than the women.

13. Food Habits of Undergraduate Students at New Mexico State University (D) A review of the literature indicates that food habit studies have been conducted with students from a variety of different age groups.(C) Studies of the food habits of young school children have shown that the diets of grade school children are often deficient in ascorbic acid, calcium and iron (Lantz et al., 1958; Patterson, 1966). (E) Young (1965) examined the nutrition habits of a group of young school children and found that their mothers lacked information about the importance of milk and foods rich in ascorbic acid. (F) Studies done with adolescent children report similar findings (Ohlson and Hart, 1970; van de Mark and Underwood, 1972). (B)Litmanet al. (1975) reported that green and yellow vegetables and liver (all nutritionally desirable foods) were not liked by teenagers in Minnesota public schools. (G) A number of studies have been conducted using both male and female college students as subjects. (A) Young and Storvick (1970) surveyed the food habits of 595 college freshmen in Oregon and found that the men generally had better diets than the women.

14. General statement on all the studies present perfect tense Activity 2.3 - explanation (D) A review of the literature indicates that food habit studies have been conducted with students from a variety of different age groups. (C) Studies of the food habits of young school children have shown that the diets of grade school children are often deficient in ascorbic acid, calcium and iron (Lantz et al., 1958; Patterson, 1966). (E) Young (1965) examined the nutrition habits of a group of young school children and found that their mothers lacked information about the importance of milk and foods rich in ascorbic acid. General statement on young school children studies present perfect tense Single study – grade school children past simple tense

15. Activity 2.3 - explanation General statement on adolescent children studies Reporting verb in (reduced) present perfect tense (F) Studies done with adolescent children report similar findings (Ohlson and Hart, 1970; van de Mark and Underwood, 1972). (B) Litmanet al. (1975) reported that green and yellow vegetables and liver (all nutritionally desirable foods) were not liked by teenagers in Minnesota public schools. Single study – adolescent children → teenagers Reporting verb past simple tense

16. Activity 2.3 - explanation General statement on college student studies Reporting verb in present perfect tense (G) A number of studies have been conducted using both male and female college students as subjects. (A) Young and Storvick (1970) surveyed the food habits of 595 college freshmen in Oregon and found that the men generally had better diets than the women. Single study – college freshmen Reporting verbs past simple tense

17. Note on Activity 2.4 • The tense patterns outlined are common but not prescriptive • There is variation in tense use across disciplines • You can reveal typical tense patterns in your subject by studying good quality research, e.g. peer reviewed journal articles and theses

18. Activity 3.1: Key Genre analysis has revealed much 1. aboutthe conventions and the constraints 2.of‘academic writing’, and these insights have been incorporated 3. into EAP writing textbooks, most notably Weissburg and Buker (1990) and Swales and Feak (1994). However, the majority 4.of the insights are drawn 5. from research 6.on/into the language and rhetorical organisation 7.of research articles, abstracts and textbooks. The emphasis thus far has been primarily 8. on the types 9.of texts which students have to read, or texts which accepted or aspiring members 10.of the research community write 11. for public consumption. 12.On reflection, it is strange that so much attention has been given 13. to the texts that expert writers produce rather than texts that students themselves generate. How comparable are books or journal articles 14. tothe kinds 15. oftexts that students have to write?

19. Activity 4.1: Practice task ordering citations • What is the main aim of the practice study? • To identify the main causes of obesity in children in the north east of England • What had/ had not been researched in the current literature? • There were data on numbers of obese children in the north east, but no research on the causes • What application will our results have? • They will be used to inform policy on the intervention and prevention of childhood obesity in the north east

20. Summary • Consider the type of overall text pattern to use • Consider building in a variety of smaller text patterns to add structure • Consider the method of organising the citations – more than one pattern could be used • Check your tense patterns • Present perfect common in multiple study citations in LR • Past simple common in single study citations in LR • These are common but not prescriptive