Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World, Fourth Edition

1. Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World, Fourth Edition

2. Learning Objectives • Describe the activities of the systems analysis life cycle phase • Explain the effect of business process reengineering on activities of the analysis phase • Describe the difference between functional and nonfunctional system requirements • Describe the kind of information that is required to develop system requirements • Determine system requirements through review of documentation, interviews, observation, prototypes, questionnaires, vendor research, and joint application design sessions • Discuss the need for validation of system requirements to ensure accuracy and completeness and the use of a structured walkthrough

3. The Analysis Phase in More Detail • Gather information • Define system requirements • Functional and nonfunctional • Prioritize requirements • Prototype for feasibility and discovery • Generate and evaluate alternatives • Review recommendations with management

4. Activities of the Analysis Phase and Their Key Questions

5. Stakeholders—The Source of System Requirements • People with interest in successful system implementation • Three primary groups of stakeholders • Users (use system) • Clients (pay for and own system) • Technical staff (ensure system operation) • Every type of stakeholder is identified by analyst

6. More On Users as Stakeholders • Horizontal user roles – information flow across departments • Vertical user roles – information needs of clerical staff, middle management, and senior executives • Business users perform day-to-day operations • Information users need current information • Management users need summary information • Executive users need strategic information • External users may have access to system

7. Techniques for Information Gathering • Analysis phase done to understand business functions and develop system requirements • Original structured approach • Create model of existing system • Derive requirements from existing system model • Current approach • Identify logical requirements for new system • Balance the review of current business functions with new system requirements

8. Relationship Between Information Gathering and Model Building

9. Themes for Information-Gathering Questions

10. Characteristics for Successful Requirements Determination • Question everything • Be impartial • Assume anything is possible • Pay attention to details • Reframe

11. Sampling Sampling is the process of systematically selecting representative elements of a population. We use sampling to make assumptions of the population as a whole. We sample to: • Contain costs • Speed up data gathering • Improve effectiveness • Reduce bias

12. Sampling Design To design a good sample, analysts need to: • Determine the data to be collected • Determine the population to be sampled • Choose the type of sample • Decide on the sample size (not covered)

13. Fact-Finding Methods • Review existing reports, forms, and procedure descriptions • Interview and discuss processes with users • Observe and document business processes • Build prototypes • Distribute and collect questionnaires • Conduct joint application design (JAD) sessions • Research vendor solutions

14. Review Existing Reports, Forms, and Procedure Descriptions • Source: External industry-wide professional organizations and trade publications • Source: Existing business documents and procedure descriptions within organization • Identify business rules, discrepancies, and redundancies • Be cautious of outdated material • Obtain preliminary understanding of processes • Use as guidelines/visual cues to guide interviews

15. Conduct Interviews and Discussions with Users • Effective way to understand business functions and rules • Time consuming and resource expensive • May require multiple sessions to • Meet all users • Understand all processing requirements • Can meet with individuals or groups of users • List of detailed questions prepared

16. Sample Checklist to Prepare for User Interviews

17. Interviewing • Planning the Interview • Conducting the Interview • Writing the Interview Report • Join Application Design (JAD)

18. Benefits Interviewee at ease Use interviewee vocabulary Detail Generate new questions More interesting for interviewee More spontaneity Phrasing is easier for interviewee Could use them when not prepared Drawbacks May result in too much detail Possibly lose control of interview Response may take too much time Appear unprepared Appear that objectives are lacking Question Types – Open-Ended Questions

19. Benefits Save time Easy to compare interviews Getting to the point Control over interview Cover lots of ground Getting only relevant data Drawbacks Boring to interviewee Lack of detail Miss main ideas Fail to build rapport with interviewee Question Types – Closed-Ended Questions

20. Question Types – Probes • Follow-up question • Used to get more meaning out of an answer • Can be either open or closed-ended questions • Indicates that you are listening

21. Question Pitfalls • Avoid leading questions • Avoid double-barreled questions • Avoid ambiguity, especially in closed-ended questions • Pretest questions before use

22. Arranging Questions • Pyramid Structure • Open with a specific question and close with a general one • Used to warm up the interviewee • Used for reluctant interviewees • Funnel Structure • Open with a general question and close with a specific one • Easy, non-threatening way to start interview • Used when interviewee feels emotional about the topic • Diamond-shaped Structure • Uses a combination of the two approaches above • Combines strengths of two approaches • Takes longer • Keeps interviewee’s interest by using a variety of questions

23. Making an Audio Recording Provides accurate record You can listen and respond more rapidly Allows better eye contact Allows replay Can make interviewee nervous Difficult to locate messages on long tapes Cost (need to transcribe tapes) Note taking Keep the interviewer alert Show interest in interview Demonstrates prepareness Lose vital eye contact Interviewee stops when notes are taken Cause attention to facts and little attention to feelings and opinions Making a Record of the Interview

24. Conducting the Interview (my suggestions) • Arrive early • Shake hands • Inform interviewee how you will work (note taking, recorder) • Check equipment • Start with open-ended questions to warm-up interview and get a feeling of attitudes • Cover all questions in 45 min to 1 hour interview • Reflect back to the interview • Ask if something was not covered • Summarize and give feedback

25. Writing the Interview Report • Write a report as soon as possibly after the interview • Note the main points of the interview and your own opinions • Review the report with the respondent at a follow-up meeting

26. System Requirements • New system capabilities and constraints • Functional requirements • Activities system must perform (use cases) • Based on procedures and business functions • Documented in analysis models • Nonfunctional requirements • Technical environment or performance objectives • Usability, reliability, and security requirements

27. Distribute and Collect Questionnaires • Limited and specific information from a large number of stakeholders • Preliminary insight into business • Not well suited for gathering detailed information • Closed-ended questions direct person answering question • Open-ended questions encourage discussion and elaboration

28. Conduct Joint Application Design Sessions • Expedites investigation of system requirements • Seeks to compress fact-finding, modeling, policy formation, and verification activities into shorter time frame • Critical factor is to have all important stakeholders present

29. Joint Application Design Participants • Session leader trained in group dynamics and JAD group facilitation • Knowledgeable business and system users and policy makers • Technical staff representatives to handle • Computer and network configurations • Operating environments • Security issues • Project team members

30. Joint Application Design Facilities • Conducted in special room • Limit interruptions • May be off-site • Resources • Overhead projector, white board, flip charts, work material • Electronic support (laptops) • CASE tools • Group support systems (GSS)

31. A JAD Facility (Figure 4-16)

32. What Is Prototyping? • A repetitive process in which analysts and users build a rudimentary version of an information system based on user feedback • Prototyping is good when: • Users are unclear about their requirements. • The system affects a relatively small number of users. • Designs are complex. • Communication between users and analysts needs to be strengthened. • Rapid application development tools are available.

33. Build Prototypes • Preliminary working model of a larger, more complex system component • Discovery, design, evolving prototypes • Prototype should be • Operative • Working model to provide “look and feel” • Focused to accomplish single objective • Quick • Built and modified rapidly with CASE tools

34. Validating the Requirements • Make sure gathered information is correct • Structured walkthrough • Effective means of implementing quality control early in project • Verify and validate system requirements • Review of findings from investigation and of models based on findings • Project manager responsible for system quality • Systems analyst, project manager are partners

35. Summary • Analysis phase activities • Gather information • Define system requirements • Prioritize requirements • Prototype for feasibility and discovery • Generate and evaluate alternatives • Review recommendations with management • Gathering system requirements • Functional and nonfunctional • Work with various stakeholders (users, clients, technical staff) • What kind of information do I need? • What are the business processes and operations? • How are the business processes performed? • What are the information requirements? • Primary information-gathering techniques • Review existing reports, forms, and procedure descriptions • Conduct interviews and discussions with users • Observe and document business processes • Build prototype working models • Distribute and collect questionnaires • Conduct JAD sessions • Research vendor solutions