Transmissão Intergeracional

1. Transmissão Intergeracional Pedro Telhado Pereira

2. Existe uma vasta literatura, da qual destacamos: • Bauer P.C., Riphahn, R.T. (2009) Age at School Entry and Intergenerational Educational Mobility, CESIFO WORKING PAPER NO. 2541 • Bauer, P., Regina, R.T. (2006) Timing of school tracking as a determinant of intergenerational transmission of education, Economics Letters, 91(1), 90-97 • Bertrand, M., Hanna R., Mullainathan, S. (2010) Affirmative action in education: Evidence from engineering college admissions in India, , Journal of Public Economics 94 16–29 • Black, S.E,Devereux, P. J. (2010) Recent Developments in Intergenerational Mobility. WP 15889, National Bureau of Economic Research, MA • Booth, A. L., Coles, M. G. (2010) Tax policy and returns to education, , Labour Economics 17, 291–301 • Carneiro, P. (2008) Equality of opportunity and educational achievement in Portugal. Portuguese Economic Journal 7, 17–41 • Carneiro, P., Heckman, J. J. (2002) The Evidence on Credit Constraints in Post-Secondary Schooling,The Economic Journal, 112, 705-734 • Caucutt, E. M, Kumar, K.B. (2003) Higher education subsidies and heterogeneity: a dynamic analysis, Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control 27 (2003) 1459 – 1502. • Christofides, L. N., Hoy, M., Yang, L, (2010) Participation in Canadian Universities: The gender imbalance (1977–2005), , Economics of Education Review 29, 400–410 • Daouli,J., Demoussis, M., Giannakopoulos N.(2010) Mothers, fathers and daughters: Intergenerational transmission of education in Greece, Economics of Education Review 29, 83–93 • Ewijk, R. V., Sleegers, P. (2010) The effect of peer socioeconomic status on student achievement: A meta-analysis, Educational Research Review 5 (2), 134-150. • Fershtman, Chaim (2010) Social Animal and Social Interaction, Iinbergen Institute Magazine, 21, 4 • Gilman, R., Anderman, E. M. (2006) The relationship between relative levels of motivation and intrapersonal, interpersonal, and academic functioning among older adolescents, Journal of School Psychology , 44 (5), 375-391 • Haegeland, T., Kirkebøen, L. J., Raaum, O., Salvanes K. G. (2010), Why Children of College Graduates Outperform their Schoolmates: A Study of Cousins and Adoptees, IZA D.P. 5369. • Heckman, J.J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P. A., Yavitz A. (2010),The rate of return to the HighScope Perry Preschool Program, Journal of Public Economics 94 114–128. • Heineck, G, Riphahn, R. T. (2009) Intergenerational Transmission of Educational Attainment in Germany - The Last Five Decades. Journal of Economics and Statistics (Jahr Nationalökon Statist) 229(1), 36-60. • Hoy, W. K., Tarter, C. J., Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2006). Academic optimism of schools: A force for student achievement, American Educational Research Journal, 43, 425-446. • Kane, T. J. (1994) College Entry by Blacks since 1970: The Role of College Costs, Family Background, and the Returns to Education The Journal of Political Economy, 102 (5), 878-911 • Kao, G, , Tienda, M. (2005) Optimism and Achievement: The Educational Performance of Immigrant Youth, in The new immigration: an interdisciplinary reader, ed. Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco,Carola Suárez-Orozco; Taylor and Frances Group. • Kleinjans, K. J. (2010) Family background and gender differences in educational expectations, Kristin J. , Economics Letters 107, 125–127

3. Mahoney, J. L., Cairns, B. D., Farmer, T. W. (2003) Promoting Interpersonal Competence and Educational Success Through Extracurricular Activity Participation, , Journal of Educational Psychology, 95 (2), 409–418 • Martin, P. Y., Jackson, S., (2002) Educational success for children in public care: advice from a group of high achievers, Child & Family Social Work, 7 (2), 121–130 • Martins, P. (2010), Can Targeted, Non-Cognitive Skills Programs Improve Achievement? Evidence from EPIS, IZA DP No. 5266 • OECD (2010a) Education at a Glance 2010 - OECD indicators. • OECD (2010b) PISA 2009 Results: Overcoming Social Background – Equity in Learning Opportunities and Outcomes (Volume II) • Pascual, M. (2009) Intergenerational income mobility: The transmission of socio-economic status in Spain. Economics of Education Review 31, 835–846. • Pereira, P. T. (2010) Higher Education Attainment: The Case of Intergenerational T Transmission of Education in Portugal, IZA DP No. 4813 • Ribeyre, F., (2003) Pour une écologie familiale. Fondements et finalités - Towards a family ecology. Fundaments and aims, Nature Sciences Sociétés 11 (2), 169-173 • Rivkin, S. G, Hanushek, E. A, Kain, J. E. (2005) Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement Econometrica, 73 (2), 417-458 • Rumberger, R. W. (2010) Education and the reproduction of economic inequality in the United States: An empirical investigation. Economics of Education Review 29(2), 146-254.

4. Alguns resultados • There is a ongoing debate about the causality of parents education as surveyed in Black and Devereux, 2010, and new evidence is being produced (Haegeland, Kirkebøen, Raaum and Salvanes 2010, Daouli, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos, 2010, Kleinjans, 2010, where there seems to be some causality but not as strong as some previous studies pointed.The literature points other aspects influence the educational success of a individual:Peers or neighborhood effects as in Ewijk and Peter Sleegers, 2010 where they show that peers’ socioeconomic status is important in explaining academic achievement.Kindergarten Enrolment and Early Child Intervention as in Bauer and Riphahn, 2009, Heckman, Moon. Pinto, Savelyev and Yavitz, 2010, where they show that early entry at kindergarten or early child intervention have a positive effect in success, particularly if the intervention is before the school age.School tracking as in Bauer and Riphahn 2006 where they show that “late tracking significantly affects mobility and reduces the relative advantage of children of better educated parents”.Affirmative Action as in Bertrand, Hanna and Mullainathan, 2010, show that in India this type of programs increase the probability of individuals from lower castes to have success in engineering.Tax Policy and Subsidies as in Booth and Coles, 2010, where they show that different tax systems can affect female education, Caucutt and Kumar 2003 “… conclude that the case for further increases in higher education subsidies might have been overstated” and Kane, 1994, show that the increase of college costs decreased black attendance.Societal norms as in Christofides, Hoy and Yang, 2010 that help to explain the evolution of the participation of females in higher education.

5. School Resources and Teachers as in Carneiro 2008 show that family and peers influence success more than school resources and Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain, 2005 showed that quality of teachers matters more than decrease in class size.Credit constraints as in Carneiro and Heckman 2002, where they showed that the existence of support programs helped to overcome the credit constraints in USA.Optimism and motivation as in Kao and Tienda, 2005, Hoy, Tarter, and Woolfolk Hoy, 2006, where they show that immigrants or academic optimism helps to explain the success of the children and Gilman and Anderman, 2006, showed academic benefits that are associated with incremental levels of motivation.Extracurricular Activity Participation as in Mahoney, Cairns and Farmer, 2003, as they develop interpersonal competences and lead to sucess.Support and encouragement for academic achievement as in Martin and Jackson, 2002, where they showed its importance for sucess.Non-Cognitive Skills Programs as in Martins, 2010, shows that this type of programs can increase the success.In a different perspective “the family represents a fundamental ecological unit: genetic and affective links between family members, shared cultural background, social structure, a place where decisions are taken, a place for handing down knowledge and helping young family members to grow... characterised by shifting structures and functions of varying complexity” (Ribeyre, 2003).

6. Higher Education Attainment - The Case of Intergenerational Transmission of Education in Portugal Pedro Telhado Pereira Universidade da Madeira IZA DP N. 4813/2010 CEEAplA W.P. 2/2010 .

7. Schooling in Portugal – OCDE data and IEFA data • Sorting in the marriage and schooling of the parents • From the schooling of the parents to the schooling of the individuals • Reasons to leave school • Conclusions

8. The lack of formal education and competences of the Portuguese workers is one of the biggest problems of the country

10. Portugal is one of the countries that presents lower percentage of people aged 25-64 with at least upper secondary education. The increase between the oldest cohort and the youngest (31 p. p.) is lower than the one verified in other southern European countries • Italy – 34 p.p., • Spain – 37 p. p. and • Greece – 38 p.p..

12. In terms of higher education Portugal still lags behind the majority of other OECD countries even for the younger cohort.

13. In IEFA (Adult education and training survey – 2007) • From the 11 289 individuals we have information of parents education and labour market conditions for 10 433 individuals. Parents’ situation when the children were 12 to 16 years old (or 14 years old if the individual asked for a specific date) • The education levels are • NONE – no formal education degree (appears only for the individuals) • BAS –corresponding to less than or equal to 9 years of education • SEC – degree corresponding to 11 or 12 years of education • HIG – Higher education degree

15. Very similar with the OECD data (green)

17. Parents’ marriage market • Saint-Paul, Gilles (2009), Genes, Legitimacy and Hypergamy: Another Look at the Economics of Marriage, IZA DP No. 4456, September. • Abstract: “…As a consequence, it is shown that the equilibrium can only be of two types. In the “Victorian” type, all agents marry somebody of the same rank in the distribution of income. In the “Sex and the City” (SATC) type, women marry men who are better ranked than themselves. There is a mass of unmarried men at the bottom of the distribution of human capital, and a mass of single women at the top of that distribution. It is shown that the economy switches from a Victorian to an SATC equilibrium as inequality goes up.”

21. Individuals’ schooling versus parents

23. Results from Ordered Probit –marginal effects for Higher Education

25. We did independent regressions for each gender

26. Total effect from parents’ education

27. For the cohort 25 to 34

28. Main reason to leave school • For individuals born after 1977 (included) leaving school at BAS or less it was asked the main reason to leave school • From these 1046 individuals, we have data on 944 parents´ schooling

29. Three main reasons for leaving school

30. For females

31. For males

32. Evolution of higher education attainment • - only one case • less than 30%

33. - only one case • less than 30%

34. Conclusions • The probability of achieving a higher education degree is more than eight times higher for an individual both of whose parents have a higher education degree than for one whose parents both have at most 9 years of education. Therefore low level of education is going to perpetuate from generation to generation, creating a lasting problem.

35. Females have an advantage in terms of educational attainment – an average increase of around 10% in the probability of attaining a higher education degree. The average disguises situations that are unfavorable for females, such as the case of having the mother with more education than the low educated father. • The time trend seems to be steeper for females than for males. • Given the findings, it is very important to intervene in the educational process to see if the children of parents with low levels of education obtain support, in order that they do not leave their studies early. This should also be done with children whose parents are unemployed, especially the father. Female children whose father has low education should also have extra support.