CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF NIGERIA`S FOODS AND FEEDING STUFFS

1. ABN 520 CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF NIGERIA`SFOODS AND FEEDING STUFFS B. R. O. Omidiwura

2. Introduction, Chemistry and nutritive values of proteinaceous feeds; legumes, animal products

3. Protein Describe protein as much as you know it

4. Protein • Next to water, protein is the major component of the body tissue • It is the essential nutrient for growth. • The body is in a dynamic state, with protein and other nitrogenous compounds being degraded and resynthesized continuously. • More protein is turned over daily in the body than is ordinarily consumed in the diet.

5. Proteins are large molecules made up of amino acids bonded together by peptide linkages. • They provide the essential amino acids, which are the initial materials for tissue synthesis and constituent of tissue protein. • Thus, it was often referred to as the “currency” of protein nutrition and metabolism (Young, 2001). • The maintenance of body tissue is essential because the body is constantly undergoing wear and tear, and proteins and amino acids provide continuous repairs.

6. Physiological functions of proteins • The formation of regulatory compounds. • Some hormones, all enzymes and most other regulatory materials in the body are protein substances. • Proteins defend the body against disease.

7. Proteins attracts water and this helps to maintain the fluid balance in their various compartments. • In addition, proteins help maintain the balance between acids and bases within the body fluids by accepting and releasing hydrogen ions. • Even though proteins are needed for growth, maintenance and repair, they will be used to provide glucose when the need arises.

8. Sources of protein 2. Plant proteins 1. Animal proteins • Animal proteins are more “biologically complete” than vegetable protein with regards to the amino acid composition. • The term “complete protein” refers to foods that contain all the essential amino acids needed by the body, whereas, “incomplete proteins” refers to foods lacking in one or more essential amino acids. • There are more complete proteins from animal sources than most vegetable proteins, which are “biologically incomplete”.

9. Complementarity of proteins • An incomplete protein can be converted into a complete protein if two incomplete proteins are added together by employing what is called “complementarity of proteins”. Two plant proteins such as legumes and grains or legumes and nuts/seeds can be mixed to produce a complete protein from two incomplete ones.

10. Protein use • It is important to have an appropriate available energy supply in a balanced diet for efficient protein use by livestock • High energy to protein ratio is needed to optimize the use of the protein • The protein inclusion in the diet should balance the provision of “essential”, “semi-essential” and “conditionally indispensable” amino acids.

11. Different protein feed ingredients have their amino acid strengths and weakness. For example: • the lysine limitation in maize, and • methionine and cysteine limitations in soyabean. These are key issues for appropriate protein use and feed formulation.

12. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEIN BASED ON ORIGIN

13. Plant Protein Sources • Soyabean meal • Groundnut cake • Sesame seed meal • Palm kernel cake • Cowpea meal • Wheat gluten meal • Corn gluten meal • Cotton seed cake • Full fat soya meal • Rape seed meal or canola meal

14. Soybean Meal (SBM) • Soybean meal has one of the best essential amino acid profiles of all protein-rich plant feedstuffs • A high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and a balanced amino acid composition, complementary to maize meal for feed formulation • A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in high performance monogastric diets • Whole soyabeans contain about 15% less protein than soyabean meal. –Why?

20. Soyabean meal is commonly used to spare fish meal, however, only to a point • The nutritive value of soyabean is limited by anti-nutritional factors. Especially by trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors • trypsin inhibitor reduces digestibility of soy protein by the enzyme trypsin • solution: most soybeans are roasted prior to milling (destroys inhibitor)

21. Anti-nutritional factors in soyabean • Protease inhibitors • Lectins • Phytoestrogens • Stachyose and raffinose • Phytates • Allergens • Pectins • Oligosaccharides

22. Full fat soybean meal is different from regular SBM in that it has a full fat complement fat has not been solvent extracted 18% fat vs 0.5% often used as an energy source or for general balancing of the formula REM: too high fat = reduced nutrient intake Full-fat Soybeans

23. Grains and By-products • Grains are primarily used as COH sources • when whole, they contribute about 62%-72% of dietary starch • starches are fairly well digested by warm-water species (60-70%), but not by cold • heating via extrusion improves digestibility by 10=15% • can also be used as binding agents

24. Grains and By-products • Corn is commonly used in the U.S., but is high in xanthophyll (a pigment), giving tissue a yellow color (not good for fish sales!) • corn gluten meal is high in protein (60%) and contains high levels of MET (excellent for formulation) • rice bran often used in developing countries due to local rice production • rice bran is a reasonable COH source, but is high in fiber and fat • wheat gluten is a good protein source, but too expensive, often used as a binder

25. Animal Protein Sources • Larva meal • Feather meal • Poultry by-products (litter and feather meal) • Maggot meal • Frog meal • Grasshopper meal • Urea • Fish meal • Blood meal • Casein • Liver meal • Meat meal • Meat and bone meal • Shrimp meal • Crayfish meal

27. Fish Meal (FM) • If made from good quality whole fish, properly processed, it is the highest quality protein source commonly available • rich source also of energy and minerals • highly digestible, highly palatable, also serves as an attractant • usually contains about 65% protein, that is around 80% digestible • high in LYS, MET (deficient in plant sources)

28. Fish Meal (FM) • if made from byproducts, its quality is not as good as trawler-caught • Quality of FM is determined by the part of fish used and processing method • only problem observed: high ash content can sometimes result in mineral imbalance • used sparingly because of high cost • can be partially replaced by soyabean meal and other animal meals

29. Fish Meal (FM) • When using FM, one must remember that it cannot be stored forever • can become rancid due to high lipid content • further, not all FM is created equal • some types (menhaden) appear to be superior to others (sardine meal) • FM must be very well ground and sieved to help remove indigestible parts • big producer countries are Norway, Canada, USA, Peru, Mexico, Ecuador

32. Methods of assessing quality • Gross inspection • Chemical analyses • Biological evaluation

33. Gross inspection • colour, texture, odour and microscopical examinations.

34. Chemical analyses – in vitro chemical tests have been used to assess the protein quality of fishmeals including test for: • Acid corrected pepsin digestible protein (AOAC and Torry methods) • Multienzyme digestible proteins (Pedersen and Eggum, 1983) • Total volatile basic nitrogen (Woyewoda et al., 1986) • Available lysine (Booth, 1971) • Sulphydryl groups, and disulphide bonds (opstvedt et al., 1984)

35. Biological evaluation • feeding trials involving growth and feed utilization measurements for fish and chicken, and also chick gizzard erosion score have been used for the biological evaluation of fishmeal.

36. QUESTIONS Meat Meal Meat and Bone Meal

37. Test • Discuss the following terms • Biologically complete protein • Complementarity of protein • B. i. The protein quality and nutrient composition of fishmeal are influenced by a. -------------------------------------------- and b. ---------------------------------------------------------- ii. Soyabean meal is a rich source of high quality vegetable protein for animal feed but the nutritive value is limited by anti-nutritional values. List at least 5 of the anti-nutritional factors.

38. CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SOME NIGERIAN GRASSES AND LEGUMES

39. QUESTION What is major problem facing livestock producers?

40. What are Forages? • Forages are plant materials (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by grazing livestock. • The term may also include pods and seeds. • The use of forages in livestock feeding is not restricted to ruminants as forages are sometimes processed and included in the diets of monogastrics.

41. Nutritive Value • Ability of a feed resource to supply nutrients for animal function to meet the required production target. • The feed and animal types are therefore functions that determine the nutritive value of a feed resource. • A feed resource with a high nutritive value for a particular animal specie A may have a low nutritive value for animal specie B. • Nutritive value is a function of the feed intake (FI) and the efficiency of extraction of nutrients from the feed during digestion (digestibility) • Feed of high nutritive value promote high levels of production (live weight gain) • Feed intake in ruminants consuming fibrous forages is primarily determined by the level of rumen fill, which in turn is directly related to the rate of digestion and passage of fibrous particles from the rumen.

42. Chemical composition of feed resources • Chemical composition of the feed is not a sure way of determining the nutritive value of feed. • A feed resource may have an excellent chemical composition but may not be adequately digested and absorbed by the animal. • Chemical composition is therefore of limited value as a predictor of nutritive value.

43. Nutritive value of ranking • The nutritive value of feeds should be ranked on the following characteristics • Voluntary consumption potential. • Potential digestibility and ability to support high rates of fermentative digestion. • High rates of microbial protein synthesis to the rumen relative to volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced (fermentation protein/energy (P/E) ratio) • High rate of propionic acid synthesis (glucogenic) relative to total VFA synthesis fermentation glucogenic/energy (G/E) ratio) and • Ability to provide bypass nutrients (protein, starch and lipid) for absorption from the small intestine (aborbed P/E and G/E ratios)

44. GRASSES • Grasses are grouped into about 620 genera with nearly 10,000 species. • The grass family (Gramineae) include about 75% of the species cultivated as forage crops and all cereal crops.

45. Classification of Grasses • Forages are often named according to a botanical binomial. • Plants with same reproductive structures belong to same genus while • the species consists of a natural population of plants with common morphological characteristics, having a common ancestry and capable of reproducing like types. • Example, for Guinea grass Panicum maximum • Panicumis the ‘Genus’ while ‘maximum’ is the species.

46. Characteristics of the grass family • Annual or perennial • Herbaceous (non-woody) • Height at maturity from few centimetres to 20m • Monocotyledons • The leaves are bore on the stem, one at each node, but are projected alternately in two rows on opposite sides of the stem • The leaf consists of sheath, blade, and ligule • The blades are parallel veined and typically flat and narrow • The stems can be creeping or erect • Possession of fibrous root system • Possession of inflorescence (a unit called spikelet) • The flowers are usually small perfect flowers- usually wind pollination • Hypogeal germination

47. Some major grass species of tropical region Protein content (g/kg dry matter) of most grasses vary between 6-13%

48. LEGUMES • Improvement in soil fertility (N-fixing ability) • Green manure to replenish organic matter content of the soil • Protect the soil surface against erosion run-off (crop cover) • Sources of protein for livestock production • Sources of fuel as fire woods

49. Classification of Legumes • The pasture legumes • Calopogonium • Canavalia • Stylosanthes • Lablab • Pueraria • Centrosema • etc • The browse legumes • Leucaena • Cassia • Acacia • Cajanus • etc

50. Characteristics of Legumes • May be annual, biennials or perennials • Dicotyledons • Possession of pods- monocarpellary (one-chamber)- with two sutural dehiscing along both sutures • Most legumes grow symbiotically with rhizobial bacteria that form nodules (difference between nodules and gall formation in roots) • Arrangement of the leaves on petioles can be unifoliate or trifoliate • Compound leaves can be pinnate where a central leaflet is connected by long petiodule where all blades have equally short petiolules • Leaves have reticulate veination • Stem of legumes vary greatly between species in length, size and amount of branching and woodiness • Most legumes have prominent tap root system • Development of colourful flowers-pollination may be self, insect, birds, etc • Germination is epigeal